370 THE VERB middle and the form - ana of the non-thematic verbs is used : cakrdnd-, jajndnd-, etc. This is in accordance with the fact, noted before, that the middle is later in the perfect than in the presen t-aorist system. §19. The Past Participle Passive This participle is most commonly made by the addition of the suffix -id to the weak form of the root (srutd- 4 heard etc.), and like other verbal derivatives it frequently employs the auxiliary vowel -2- (paiitd- ' fallen ', etc.). The meaning is passive except in the case of intransitive verbs (gatd- 1 gone etc.). The forma- tion is ancient in Indo-European as is clear both from the fact that it appears in large proportion of the languages, and be- cause it is subject to the old IE apophony. At the same time it does not appear to go back to the period wffien Hittite separated, since in that language the passive participle is expressed differ- ently, by the suffix -ant. In contradistinction to the active and middle participles it is not associated with particular tense stems but formed directly from the root both in Sanskrit and other IE languages, A minority of roots form their past passive participle in nd instead of -id. This is particularly the case with roots in -f (kirnri- 'scattered', glrn a 'swallowed'), roots in -2 [ksvnd- 4 wasted away '), roots in -d (bhinna- * broken *, chinnd - 4 cut ') and it is found in a number of roots in -j ( bhugnd - bent bhagnd- 'broken'). Very occasionally other suffixes are so used, notably pakvd- 4 cooked, ripe The details of these formations have been systematically treated in the section dealing with the formation of nouns, and need not be repeated here. The importance of the past participle passive increases in the later language, and still more so in Prakrit, on account of the change that took place from active to passive construction. It becomes customary in later time to express past actions not by active preterites but by the past passive participle associated with the instrumental : sa mayd drstah 4 he (was) seen by me ' for ‘ I saw him This resulted in middle Indo- Aryan in the elimination of the old preterites, and in modern Indo- Aryan all the tenses expressing the preterite are based on the old past participle passive.
