THE VERB 357 duplicates in the same way as the above, but forms its stem by the addition of the accented -yd- suffix and inflects exclusively in the middle : marmrjydte, dedipydte , dodhuydte, etc. (tnrj- ‘ wipe J , dip- 1 shine dhu- ‘ shake '). This is rare in the Vedic language, but in the classical language it is commoner than the basic type. Intensive formations corresponding to the Sanskrit basic type were common in Old Iranian : cf. Av. zaozaomi, carvkdrvmahi , (opt.) dardairydt , daeddiU, (thematic) naenizaiti, corresponding to the Sanskrit intensive bases johav -, carkar dardar-, dedi& and nenij Though not recorded outside Indo-Iranian the formation is evidently ancient in Indo-European. The fact that it does not appear elsewhere is due to the general abandonment of non-thematic verbal inflection in the majority of IE lan- guages. In contradistinction the second type of intensive formation (i dedipydte ), though rare in early Sanskrit, has parallels elsewhere, particularly in Greek : noppvpoj 1 be in un- easy motion ' (Skt. bhur-) t ira^paivto 4 shine brightly SapSanrcu ' tear asunder p,app,atpuj 4 glitter etc. III. The Causative The causative is the most productive of the secondary con- jugations from the early period onwards. The stem is formed by the addition of the suffix -dya- to the root, which normally appears in its strengthened form, and it is identical with the stem of the tenth class of verbs. There are a considerable number of verbal formations in -dya- t particularly in the early language which have no causative function. Some have a fre- quentative sense (patdyati 4 flies about etc.) which from the comparative evidence is ancient (Gk. 7 tot€o/xch). The causative is only one of the uses attached to the dya - stem, but in course of time it becomes the predominant one. There is in the earlier language a distinction between causatives with strengthened root and non-causatives with weak root : dyutdya ruedya - 4 shine ' : dyotdya-, rocaya- 4 illuminate etc. ; similarly be- tween guna and vrddhi in patdya- 1 fly about pdtaya - ' cause to fall V The distinction is not absolute since there are forma- tions with weak root having a causative sense ( drmhdya - ' make firm ') and conversely formations with strengthened root having a non-causative sense {muddy a- 1 get intoxicated '). In the later language the bulk of the non-causative forms die out, and what
