284 NUMERALS, PRONOUNS, INDECLIN ABLES and Av. nurdtn is of the same origin as that of the nominal formations (cf. Gk. veapo? : vcavtas, etc.). The adverb nand 1 variously ' (the Veda has also an extended form nananam) is of unknown derivation. The conjunction ca ‘ and ' (Av. 6a, Gk. tc, Lat. que, Goth. -h)' is enclitic, as in all the languages. The same applies to vd ' or *, cf. Lat. ve. A non-enclitic in the former sense is utd * and, also ' (Av. O, Pers. uta ‘ and ’). Of miscellaneous particles of asseveration, etc., mention may be made of anga ‘verily' hdnta (expressive of incitement), kila * forsooth ’, khdlu ' indeed tu ' but hi 1 for ' (Av. zi)> gha , ha ' indeed ' (the latter a weakened form of the former ; cf. O. SI, zt), vat 4 verily viva * id ' (with two accents that have not been explained), «, aha , sma, bhala , The particle sma used in conjunction with a present tense gives it an imperfect value. In the later language particles are less frequent than in the earlier, and those that remain tend to lose their significance^ and serve in poetry simply as devices for filling out the metre. A few interjections may be merely listed : d, hd, ahaha , he, ayi f aye , aho, bat , bata , dhik . Some noun and adjective forms have acquired this function ; re, are (voc. of ari- * enemy '), bhos (for bhavas , voc. of bhavant - f your honour ’), kastam ‘ woe is me ! svasti 4 hail ! susthu, sadhu ‘ good, excellent ! etc. Prepositions and Postpositions In contradistinction to other IE languages Sanskrit has not a developed series of prepositions. Furthermore those adverbial formations which are used to define more closely the case- relationship are normally placed after the noun used in this case, and not before it as in other IE languages. In comparison with the Vedic language later Sanskrit is noticeably poorer in words of this type, so that the distinction between it and the usual type of IE language is partly due to regression. On the other hand the system as it appears in the Vedic language, with freer order and looser connection of such words with the nouns they govern, is clearly more primitive than that found in Greek, Latin, etc., and is closer to the IE beginnings of the develop- ment of the prepositional system. Of the words so used in the Veda the most important class, as elsewhere, consists of those words which are also used as verbal prefixes (see below). The majority of these can be so
