68 PHONOLOGY there is the greatest certainty in the case of the first class, but even the pure reconstructions of the second class are, with few exceptions, established beyond reasonable doubt. In the following cases an Indo-European consonant is pre- served unchanged in Sanskrit and in other languages : p : pane a * 5 * * Gk. irevre ; pdtati 4 flies ’ : Gk. ttctctcu ; dpa 4 away, from 1 : Gk. airo : sdrpati ' crawls ' : Gk. epnet Lat. serpit. t: tanu- ' thin', Gk. raw Lat. tenuis ; trdyas 4 3 J , Gk. rp€lg t Lat. ires ; variate ‘ turns ’ ; Lat. verto . d : ‘ 10 Gk. SeVa, Lat. decern ; dirghd- 4 long ' ; Gk. SoAi^ds, O. SI, dlugu ; ‘ I know Gk. otS a, Lat. video . k : kravis - ' raw flesh Gk. Kpeas ; kdksa- 1 armpit cf. Lat. Co##. g : ytigdrn 4 yoke Gk. Lat. iugum ; ' to cover Gk. ordycu. n : 4 name Lat. nomen ; ndva- 4 new Gk. veos, Lat. novus ; ndbhas ' cloud *, Gk. v^o? ; ddnam 4 gift Lat. donum , O. SI. tfaiift. m : mat dr- 4 mother ', Lat. ma/er ; ma me’, Lat. me ; ' mouse V Lat. mils, O. SI. my si ; ddma- 4 house Gk. Sopog, Lat. domus. I : lubh-, lubhyati ' desire, covet Lat. hibet, Goth, liu/s, 0. SI. ljubu 4 dear laghu- 4 light, swift Gk. iXaxvs, Lat. levis. r : rudhira- 4 red, blood Gk. ipvdpos, Lat. ruber r&j-, rajan- 4 king Lat. rex , Gallic °rix ; bhdrati 4 bears Gk, <f>4pw, Lat . fero, Goth, baira . y : yuyan- 4 young man Lat. iuvenis ; ydkrt 4 liver Lat. iecwr ; yus- 4 broth, soup Lat. ids , 0. SI. jacha. w (t/) : vac- 4 speech Lat. vox ; vdhati 4 carries V Lat. vehil ; ndva- 4 new Lat. novus ; dvi- 4 sheep ’, Lat. ovis. s : sdna- 4 old ’, Lat. senex , Ir. sen ; sdnti 4 they are’, Lat. sunt ; sunu- 4 son ’, Lith. sunus, Goth, sunus ; dmsa- 'shoulder’, Goth, ams ; dsthi 4 bone ’,.Gk. oariov, Lat. os, ossis. In cases like the above the reconstruction of the IE forms presents a minimum of problems ; reconstruction in the full sense is not necessary since the phonemes in question are widely preserved. They are not preserved in all languages (e.g. Engl, thin : Lat. tenuis ; Welsh hen, Ir. sen), but a study of all the available evidence leaves little doubt as to which languages
