Birds in Sanskrit literature

by K. N. Dave

Birds in Sanskrit literature K. N. Dave १९८५

BIRDS IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE With 107 Bird Illustrations K.N. DAVE In his monumental research in ancient Sanskrit literature, the author has restored gaps in lexicons, and removed doubts in the later Sanskrit works about the identity of a very large number of birds of the Indian sub-continent.The ancient sages of India were great lovers of nature, with keen powers of observation and an ex- traordinary sensitivity about animal behaviour. The Vedas, Purāṇas, Epics and Samhitās are full of descriptions of birds, animals and plants, but the exact identi- fication of names had got lost or con- founded over the centuries. Acharya V.M. Apte, the great Sanskrit scholar described this contribution of the author in the following words: "It will be a study the fascination of which will be matched only by its utility. Scholars intel- lectually constituted with a purely theo- retical bias and studying Nature not in the open but through books, have not a leg to stand on in this field and we will feel highly indebted to a scholar who introduces the ancient (and also mod- ern, because surviving still) Birds in Vedic and Classical Sanskrit Literature to us in such a way as to make us feel that we can actually admire their colourful plumage and appreciate the effusions of their vo- cal chords." This book fills a void in Sanskrit litera- ture, and should prove useful not only to scholars, but also to researchers who may be inspired by it to delve deeper into Sanskrit texts and ancient Indian culture. ________________

KN. DAVE, was born in 1884 in Panna, then a princely State and now in Madhya Pradesh. He had his schooling in Sagar and took the B.Sc. degree from Allahabad; then he taught Chemistry at St. John's College, Agra, simultaneously studying Law. He practised at the Bar, served as a Civil Judge in C.P. and Berar, and later joined the newly created Income Tax Department, retiring as an Assistant Commissioner in 1940. After Independence, he was a Member of the Madhya Pradesh Public Service Commission from 1948 to 1953. Dave had a keen interest in Indian literature since 1904, and in Nature Study from a very early age. Birds and bird behaviour fascinated him ever since he started keeping birds as pets, a hobby he continued throughout his life. An expert ornithologist, and a scholar of eminence in the Vedas, Purāṇas and classical Sanskrit works, Dave devoted nearly two decades to systematic research with a view to identify birds described in Sanskrit literature by relating the details of their habitat, coloration and various characteristics to modern scientific observations, and to the names current in Hindi and other languages and dialects of the country. At the time of his death in November, 1983, the author was working on a further major research contribution on "The Mystic Cult of Honeyed Soma and Symbolic Victims of the Veda". It is a matter for deep regret that he could not live to complete that work. However, it is hoped that a brief monograph prepared by him earlier will soon be made available to scholars who may wish to delve deep into the Vedic mysticism uncovered by Dave. First Edition: 1985 Revised Edition: Delhi, 2005 © MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED All Rights Reserved. ISBN: 81-208-1842-3 MOTILAL BANARSIDASS 41 U.A. Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110 007 8 Malalaxmi Chamber, 22 Bhulabhai Desi Road, Mumbai 400 026 236, 9th Main III Block, Jayanagar, Bangalore 560 011 120 Royapettah High Road, Mylapore, Chennai 600 004 Sanas Plaza, 1302 Baji Rao Road, Pune 411 002 8 Camac Street, Kolkata 700 017 Ashok Rajpath, Paua 800 004 Chowk, Varanasi 221 001 Printed in India BY JAINENDRA PRAKASH JAIN AT SHU JAINENDRA PRESS A45 NARAINA, PHASE-I, NEW DELHI 110 028 AND PUBLISHED BY NARENDRA PRAKASH JAIN FOR MOTHAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED. BUNGALOW ROAD, DELI 110 007 Introduction Works Read/Consulted List of Colour Plates 1. Crows and Their Allies A. Ravens and Crows B. Choughs C. Nutcrackers D. Magpies E. Jays and Rollers Tits 2. 3. 4. Nuthatches 5. Laughing Thrushes & Babblers A. Birds equal in size to or larger than the common Myna B. Birds of the size of a Sparrow CONTENTS Parrot-bills and Suthoras 6. Bulbuls 7. Tree creepers 8. Wrens 9. Dippers 10. The Thrush Family 11. Fly Catchers 12. Shrikes 13. Minivets 14. Swallow-shrikes 15. Drongos 16. Warblers 17. Gold-crests 18. The Fairy Blue-bird 19. Orioles 20. Grackles or Hill-Mynas 21. Starlings and Mynas 22. Weaver-birds and Munias A. Weaver-Birds B. Munias 23. Finches and Buntings A. Finches B. Buntings

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ix xvii xxi 1 1 9 11 11 15 21 23 24 28 28 31 34 40 42 43 44 53 57 58 61 62 68 70 71 72 81 84 89 92 92 95 24. Waxwing 25. Martins & Swallows 26. Wagtails and Pipits A. Wagtails B. Pipits 27. Larks 28. The White Eye. 29. The Ruby-cheek 30. The Sun-Birds 31. Flower-peckers 32. Pittas 33. Broad-bills 34. Wood-peckers 35. Barbets 36. Honey-guide 37. Cuckoos A. Parasitic Cuckoos B. Non-Parasitic Cuckoos. 38. Paroquets or Parrots 39. Rollers 40. The Bec-caters 41. The Kingfishers 42. Hornbills 43. Hoopoes 44. The Trogons 45. Swifts 46. Nightjars 47. Frogmouths 48. The Barn Owl (vi) 49. Other Owls 50. Osprey 51. Vultures & Lammergeyer 52. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds: A. True Eagles B. Hawk Eagles, Serpent Eagles and Buzzard Eagles C. Sea Eagles, Fishing Eagles D. Falcons and Hawks I. Introductory II. Falcons III. Hawks E. Kites, Harriers and Buzzards 53. Pigeons and Doves A. Introductory B. Pigeons C. Doves 97 98 102 102 107 108 112 113 114 116 117 118 119 123 126 127 127 137 141 146 147 155 159 162 164 165 170 172 173 175 185 188 198 198 210 212 215 215 221 235 242 250 250 252 257 54. Sand-Grouse 55. Pea-Fowl, Jungle Fowls, Pheasants & Quails A. Peafowl B. Jungle Fowls and Pheasants C. Tragopans, Blood Pheasants & Partridges D. Quails and Bustard Quails 56. Magapodes 57. Bustard Quails (vii) 58. Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks & Coot 59. Masked Finfoot 60. Jacanas 61. The Painted Snipe 62. Cranes 63. Bustards 64. Stone-Plovers 65. Coursers & Pratincoles 66. Crab-Plovers 67. Skuas 68. Gulls 69. Terns 70. Skimmer or Scissorbill 71. Plovers 72 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper etc. 73. Pelicans 74. Cormorants & Darter 75. Gannet or Booby 76. Tropic Bird 77. Erigatebird 78. Petrels 79. Spoonbill 80. Ibises 81. Storks 82. Herons, Egrets and Bitterns 83. Flamingos 84. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 85. Grebes 86. Divers Index Sanskrit Pali-Prakrit Index 265 268 270 271 279 284 290 291 292 303 304 307 309 325 332 333 336 337 338 345 351 357 364 370 371 376 377 378 379 380 381 389 400 408 422 461 463 465 483 INTRODUCTION I I have been interested in birds from my younger days and have kept talking Parrots, the smaller Skylarks, Mynas, Lal Munias, Racket-tailed Drongo, and Love-birds. This led my friend, Kamta Prasad Sagreiya, I.F.S., to ask me to prepare a list of Hindi names for the birds exhibited in the Museum at Nagpur. In the course of that work I had often to con- sult Sanskrit lexicons for derivation of names in Hindi. That done, naturally turned to the identification of bird-names in Sanskrit, for the dictionaries rendered a good few of them as 'a kind of bird' only. Soon after this was completed, I was closely associated with my friend, the late Dr. Raghuvira, Director, International Academy of Indian Culture, in the compilation of his book, Indian Scientific Nomenclature of Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, according to the trinomial system of the Fauna of British India by Stuart Baker (1922-1930). In my present work, I have followed the order of bird-families of S. Baker, and the absence of birds of certain families in Sanskrit books consulted by me has been noted under the related chapters. II 1. The Rgveda, concerned chiefly with the mystic Soma cult, men- tions only about twenty birds which, however, does not imply that the Vedic poets' knowledge was confined to those birds only. They must have been familiar with birds of their neighbouring forest. Their powers of observation, love of birds, and prejudice againt some may be briefly illustrated: RV 1.164.20 presents a beautiful picture of two birds-one of beautiful plumage ( e.g. the Golden Oriole) and the other a bird of prey (gt-an Eagle)- sharing as friends a common tree for their abode, and while the former enjoys the sweet berries of the tree (Ficus religiosa) the other, not eating the berries, keeps a lookout (for prey) perched high up. on the tree.¹ RV 2.42 and 43 describe the welcome pleasant notes of the auspicious Grey Partridge (free) and the poet lovingly blesses the bird that it may not fall prey to a hawk or to a bow-man. Further, he pays it. high compliment by describing its sweet notes as a (song of praise). On the other hand the Rock Pigeon () and the Hooting Owl (e) are condemned as birds of ill omen in RV 10.165.4. 1. It is not necessary to bring out here the highly mystic transfer of the picture to a

particular aspect of the mystic Soma cult in the next two verses of the hymn (consisting of

2. The Atharvaveda also shows familiarity with birds of prey like the Laggar Falcon or the Red-headed Merlin who hunt in pairs (श्येनौ संपातिनौ, AV 7.70.3). The mutual attachment of a pair of the Brahminy Ducks (चक्रवाक) who keep together during the day and move apart during the night in search of food among water plants but keep in touch with one another by mutual calls is the basis for pronouncing a blessing for mutual love upon a newly married couple in AV 14.2.64. 3. By the time the Samhitas of the Yajurveda came to be composed (c. 1000 B.C.) the Indo-Aryans had become familiar with many more birds and able to teach the Hill Myna and the Parrot (शारि and शुक ) to repeat human speech, and the priests at the horse-sacrifice dedicated them to सरस्वती, the goddess of speech, and to सरस्वान् (VS 24-33). They had also observed the parasitic habit of the Indian Koel laying its eggs in the nests of crows, and allotted it under the name of अन्यवाप to the half months because it assigned the work of brooding on its eggs and bringing up the young to others (VS 24.37). The Yajus Samhitas mention about sixty birds in all in the litany of the horse-sacrifice. 4. The broad V-form of a flight of Demoiselle Cranes was copied by the Pandavas in their war against the Kauravas for the arrangement of a squadron under the name of a (MBh 6.51.1) and this formation has been well-defined in fr ch. 4, sec. 7. 297: "As the flight of cranes across the air assumes a regular formation, so should the state's army (a) be arranged when at war like the stage." Like the Crane, the Barheaded Goose (g) is also a winter visitor in India and a flock takes to wing in V-formation, and the Monkey-force of Ramacandra, assuming the form of Geese in the air (garett) attacked the demon- force of Ravana(Råm. VI. 69.36-37). The return of the geese to the Indian lakes and tanks in winter has been very compassionately mentioned in Vişņu Purăņa, V.10.9: "Like an imperfect f turally suffers from worry and many an obstacle, the Geese (gr) who had deserted the tanks and riddles). The single verse, much later मुह, उप., श्वेता. detached from the other two is differently interpreted in the and the free: the tree as the human body and the birds as the individual and the Supreme spirits. As for the two birds sharing a common tree for their abode in RV 1.164.20 compare the story of two bird-friends, both woodpeckers, one quite strong and the other quite weak. The latter wanted to share the hardwooded tree occupied by the former, but despite the strong one's advice against the ides, tried to peck a hole in the tree and lost its life (Jataka, II. 162). The two birds were the Goldenbacked and the Rufous Woodpeckers; the latter does not dig a hole in a tree but nests into the leafy bowls of tree-ants, and as it feeds on the ants it even shares it with them. The Jataka of the Pali Text Society contains many bird- stories, and the story of three birds in V. 109 clearly shows that the ancient Indian gained knowledge of birds from the indigenous tribes (frres) as well. 2. For these birds TS 5.5.12 has viawife and re: where we must render the word as 'bright' or beautiful, for there is no white Myna or Parrot in India at all. (xi)

lakes earlier, have come back again to them (and run the risk of being killed by archers for food)." In Raghuvamsa XIII.55 flocks of the geare said to visit India from the Mânasarovara lake, and the Himalayan passes through which these birds and the cranes fly over to India are called इंसद्वार and [फचरंघ respectively. 5. By the time AV 20.135 came to be composed, the prejudice against the pigeon had disappeared, for in verse 12 of the hymn, Indra is said to have helped a wounded pigeon with food and water; and we also note it as a pet bird (गृहकपोत) in मालविकाग्निमित्र 4.17. We have seen above how as early as the age of the Yajus Samhitas, Parrots and Mynas were trained to talk, and we may not be surprised if the practice of keeping numbers of pretty birds had become common with kings and the rich, for we find in Act IV offee that the courtesan w maintained a large variety of birds in her palace including a parrot which could repeat even verses from the Veda. Pet birds were also common in all hermitages. 6. Love of the calls of certain birds explains the comparison of the tones of music with the pleasant voices of birds like the Peacock, Hawk- cuckoo, Sarasa Crane, and the Kokil in time 1.3.46. On the other hand, the silly pride of a physician went so far as to compare the pulse- beats of certain patients with the gait or steps of Geese, Peacock, Dove, Pigeon, Cock, Quail, Partridge etc. in the book are where the author proudly declares that he has indicated the best method of judging ailments for the ignorant physicians: 7. Some popular maxims have also been coined after the ways of birds, e.g. काकतालीय न्याय, खनेकपोत न्याम, अण्डकुक्कुटी न्याय का न्याय etc. The last of these is based upon a wrong belief that the crow has only one eye-ball because the bird, when looking down from a high perch turns its head both right and left. The rotor is clearly reflected in the ng VI. 28, where the g (Goose) is credited with the habit of sucking up only pure milk from a mixture of milk and water. This, however, seems to be poetic extension of the Vedic picture of the Sun as a Swan or Goose (g f, RV 4.40.5) who sucks up pure water (fr, RV. 1.164.7) with his rays from even muddy pools. 8. In the Bh. P. X.15.11-13 fondness of Sri Krspa for sweet notes and songs of birds and the dance of the Peacock, is said to be so great that he learnt to imitate them quite correctly. In the Gità (10.30) he identifies himself with 4, the best of the birds-ar was the one who robbed the सोम or अमृत well-guarded by the मस्तूs in the सुपर्णाव्यान 9. The slow and graceful gait of pretty young women has often been poetically compared to that of a domestic Goose, e.g. in i 8.59; gure. 1.34; ब्रह्मवैवर्तपुराण 11.2.37; किरातार्जुनीय 8.29; मुज्छकटिक 4.28. 3. Comp. the rendering in Sanskrit of the first half of the Ardha Magadhi Nyaya verse quoted in अभिधानराजेन्द्र, the Ardha Magadhi lexicon: "गया अभया बलाका " (the same as "Egg first or the hen first").

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10. The authors of the original Epics would seem to have presente d a more accurate picture of the wild scenery including animals, birds and trees, of palaces known to them, but we cannot say the same of the later interpolations, e.g. the extravagant description of the area of the Himalayas in aer III. 158.44-45 where the tropical trees, coconut and the jack-fruit (aft and e) are said to grow; verses 43-47 of this chapter of the महाभारत have been copied with slight changes in the मार्कण्डेय पुराण ch. VI. 10-22 to describe the jungle surrounding the holy city of arfent so that the Himalayan bird vetc and the tree trert appear to be natural there. 11. The practice of divination from the ways, movements etc. of birds (and animals) was common to all primitive cultures (Ency. Rel. and Ethics, s.v. Augury; Divination; Omens) and India was no exception to it. Books. like the पशि ब्राह्मण, वसन्तराज शकुन and also Puranas (e.g.अग्नि पुराण chs. 230-232, chs. 51.66-72) deal with the subject. 12. The are recommends the protection of auspicious and even other pleasant and cheerful birds and animals in pleasure grounds and the practice of sending information about the enemy by letters tied to homing pigeons carried with him by the king's spy is commended and it is also referred to in बृहत्कथामंजरी. 13. We have a good example of sympathetic magic in the art q where the first solid food commended for a six-month-old baby-boy is, 1) flesh of the female Skylark (wrrt) if his father wants him to be a fluent speaker; 2) the flesh of the auspicious Grey Partridge (fa) associated with field crops for abundance of food; or 3) the flesh of the Little Ringed Plover (w) for long life; or 4) the flesh of the Black Ibis (afe) for holy lustre agriq. The Black Ibis (a holy bird in Egypt) wears a trian- gular patch of crimson warts on the crown of its bare black head, a picture of a conical pile of red embers (af) indicative of its holiness. 14. India being rich in birds, their place in Indian drama is well indicated in the eve of wergft. Chapter II of the book refers to the indication of the features of birds like the Goose, Cock, Pigeon, and the Eagle by an actor or actress with special movements of the hands and fingers; Ch. XI. 58 tells us that the presentation of birds () by gesti- culation is very interesting to watch, and the birds to be indicated in this manner are named in Ch. XXVI, while Ch, XXXII deals with the topic of repetition of a particular voice as a sort of burden, and its modifications in pitch, tune, or quality (sweet, soft, or coarse) are indicative of different call-notes of certain birds and copied by characters of high, middle, or low social status. The art XII.103.10 mentions an expert bird-catcher who 1 invites birds with their call-notes to catch or trap them. 4. In grarer III dhe afar vi consisting of Cha, 80 to 156, would seem to be a later interpolation by its priestly author for the benefit of his own clam. 3. Ibis was "the sacred bird of the God Thoth (God of Wisdom) who was believed to have the form of that bird" (Ency. of Rel. and Ethics, VI, pp. 630b, 651 b). ( xiii ) I have briefly indicated above that the ancient Indians closely observed and studied the ways, calls and songs of birds in nature, and utilized their knowledge to enhance the quality of their literature and drama. They also used them for purposes of secret news transmission. The कौटिलीय अर्थशास्त्र, II, बध्याय 34 mentions the use of royal homing pigeons for carrying news. Apart from differ- ent and alternative meanings often noticed in Sanskrit lexicons, c.g., तित्तिरी and भास in the or the absurd equation 'बक्राङ्गारस से in the werfest I may refer to the variant renderings of bird names like क किकिदीवि, चाष and पुष्करसाव mentioned in the Vedic Index of MacDonell and Keith, which clearly point to the difficulty in identifying the names with their proper owners. is said therein to mean usually a 'heron', but in the same passages it also denotes 'some bird of prey, and in support of the latter references to the afere and arfer are given. The truly my- stic shape of the sacrificial Fire-altar in the form of a particular si (a Hawk) has been vainly extended by the priests to the and even (crematorium) in afer. eifgar V.4. 11.3. This is really the Fishing Eagle, Bird No. 1779 in S. Baker's Fama of British India-Birds still called in Nepal. It is also a carrion eater, including the flesh of soldiers killed in war as is clearly stated in सामवेद II. 1214, where कडू, सुपर्ण (the Imperial Eagle, No. 1747, ib.) and qu (Vulture) are said to find their food on the battlefield. g is one of the birds of prey in ga I. 46, V. 74 and as a sharp-billed, bold and cruel flesh eater in af XVIII, 107. The common Pond Heron, the fish eater, is also a (ib. v. 119), and another water-bird, the g() is the Adjutant Stork who "often con- sorts with kites and vultures to feed at carcasses" (Salim Ali's Book of Indian Birds) and stands about 4 ft. high. In the Vedic Index fefefe and we have been treated as two different birds, the former 'perhaps the blue jay', but according to the commentator 'a partridge', and the latter the blue woodpecker', but in point of fact, however, both and fefefe are one and the same bird, viz. the bluejay, fefefe being its epithet in Rgveda 10.97.13, with reference to the bird's indistinct calls like fe-fe' and its playful flight in the air. That is why the bird is mentioned simply as in VS 24. 23; 25.7; MS 3.14.4; 15.9; and as किकिदीवि in TS 5.6.22.1, and काठक संहिता (अश्वमेध) 10.2. Again, of the phrase, feffar' of RV 10.97.13. has been replaced with win in the parallel san fefeffer' in TS 4.2.6.4, where the ver is the Himalayan Kestrel, a winter visitor to the plains, whose flight and calls are described by Salim Ali: "Chiefly distinguished for its spec- tacular method of hunting. Checks itself in flight now and again and remains poised and stationary in mid-air on rapidly hovering wing tips for many seconds. Call: A sharp fe-fe-fe or farm... uttered on the wing, some- 6. The Heron does not fly very high, and keeps his eyes fixed down on the water for fish, and does not suit the context of TS and VS. xiv ( ) times when hovering." Now we also have the name (sporting, playful, or dancing) as a name for a bird of prey in erg p. 327, verse 90 so that a Kestrel should be the with which the of the Rgveda has been replaced by the sporting with ff as its call in the TS. Finally, it is interesting to quote both S. Baker on Bird Nos. 1516-17, and Salim Ali on the Roller or Blue Jay: The Kashmir Rollers "spend much of their time performing acrobatic feats in the air, first twisting one way, then the other and often making a complete turn...accompanied by much harsh creaking and shrieking..." (S. Baker); "Has a variety of loud raucous creaks and chuckles. Indulges in a spectacular courtship display, somer- saulting and nosediving in the air to the accompaniment of harsh grating screams" (Salim Ali). We thus see the correctness of the derivation of the name or epithet, fefefe for the and both 'partridge' and 'blue wood- pecker have nothing to do with it. The अमरकोश, अभिधानचिन्तामणि of हेमचन्द्र and af treat and feffer as synonyms, and the last named lexicon also stresses the auspicious nature of the bird with the epithet of gre in its सिंहादिवर्ग, v. 157. In the Vedic Index gore 'sitting on the lotus' is the name of an animal at the horse sacrifice in TS, MS, and VS and the authors do not accept Zimmer's rendering of it as a 'snake' but are inclined to accept either the suggestion of Roth as a 'bird', or of the commentator as a "bee' (TS 5.5.14.1). It is, however, the name of the bird, the Indian Whiskereds Tern which places its nest on top of tangled floating water-plants and also upon leaves of the totus as is clearly stated by S. Baker in Vo: VI, p. 112, of his Fauna-Birds: The Whiskered Terms make their nests "of reeds and rushes which are built partly or wholly supported by lily leaves and other water plants-in large colonies". The female is gcnfis' in grafem and with great in the g as a water-bird, the following verse presents a beautiful picture of the females nesting in a colony amongst the lotuses under the diminutive name of gfe-in contrast with their larger cousins, the River Terns which make no nest and always lay their eggs in deep hollows scratched in sand (Bird No. 2080, in S. Baker), a fact which brings out the full significance of the epithet or name, gene (T)- or ge-enfast, who are gathering back with their wings their half-fledged younglings sprawling away from their beds on the lotus leaves: अर्द्धाभ्युद्गतपत्रकं परिलुठन् पत्रेषु परुहाम् प्रायः पोतकजातक कुररिका: पक्षः समूहन्त्यमूः ।। Thus the guess of Roth was correct, and not the 'bee' of the commen- tator, nor the 'snake' of Zimmer. The short notes on a few bird-names from the Vedic Index given above should make it clear that if one wants to know with a fair degree of cer- tainty the particular kind of bird meant in a given context, one cannot always go by the dictionary meanings of the names, or by the published commentaries or translations, but must try to examine the overall context xv ) in each case with reference to the period of the composition of a work (Vedic, Epic or Classical), the geographical setting, the picture an author wants to present, and the object he has in view. This however, is easier said than done, for many an example in the Puranas would be found to be extremely vague, and it is perhaps true to say that the authors have striven in their compositions more after general effect and word sympathy than faithfulness to Nature. At the same time it cannot be denied that there is a considerable volume of hight class poetry which is quite as close to Nature as poetry can be. Turning to the commentaries, we must note that they are generally of a much later date than the original texts and cannot always be accepted as correct, for the commentators themselves are not quite sure of their own. renderings of many a name of wild birds or animals, as is evident from the advice given by 3rt in his note on VS XXIV. 20, which mentions six different birds dedicated as symbolical victims to the six Vedic seasons of the year: "When the victims cannot be identified one should seek help from etymology, commentary of gre on fire grammar, frger lexicons, and from the people of the forests." The same advice is also given by Acarya Mahidhara, the second commentrator of VS, as a preliminary to his notes on the formulae 21-40. The fat and fear divide the birds empirically into four groups: पदः (the peckers), विष्क्रिय (the scratchers), प्लबा: (the water-birds), and प्रसहा- (the birds of prey), but I have tried in this book to follow the scientific classification of Indian birds and to identify their names in Sanskrit; I have tried to do my best by a comparative study of their names in Prakrit, Pali, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, and at times even in South Indian languages. I may well have gone wrong with a number of both obscure and possibly corrupt terms for lack of sufficient material, and otherwise too, a situation not uncommon even with the best of scholars who have dealt with ancient culture and literature. III The probable usefulness of this book on birds for students of Sanskrit has been anticipated by my friend, Prof. Dr. V. M. Apte, in the following rather highly colourful words: "It will be a study-the fascination of which will be matched only by its utility. Scholars intellectually constituted with a purely theoretical bias and studying Nature not in the open but through books, have not a leg to stand on in this field and we will feel highly in- debted to a scholar who introduces the ancient (and also modern, because surviving still) Birds in Vedic and Classical Sanskrit Literature to us in such a way as to make us feel that we can actually admire their colourful plumage and appreciate the effusions of their vocal chords". IV I owe a great debt of gratitude to my friend, the late Dr. Raghuvira who encouraged me in my work and also lent me some important books. ( from the rich library of the International Academy of Indian Culture. I also acknowledge my deep obligation to my friend, Padma Bhushana, Dr. Siddheshwar Varma, who went through my work with great interest from the point of view of a general reader, and offered many a valuable suggestion both with reference to the presentations of particular topics and the grammatical derivation of some of the Sanskrit and vernacular. bird-names. I was a member for a few years of the Bombay Natural History Society and am thankful to it for some factual information furnished to me regarding certain birds and animals. xvi) Finally, I am grateful to the Ministry of Education, Government of India for the financial support it has given to the publication of this work. K. N. Dave Jabalpur, July 25, 1980 Postscript The author passed away on the 6th of November, 1983 and could neither see his work in print, nor revise this introduction. I wish to place on record our debt of gratitude, on his behalf, to the great ornithologist Dr. Salim Ali and the Oxford University Press for their permission to use the picture plates of birds that greatly enhance the readability of this work. The Oxford University Press deserve our special thanks for printing the plates. Our thanks are also due to the publisher, Motilal Banarsidass for bringing out this valuable contribution to the study of Sanskrit literature. A considerable labour of love has been put into the publication of this work by my brother, P. K. Dave and my wife, Smita. New Delhi June 15, 1984 A. K. Dave WORKS READ/CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT VOLUME I. The Rgveda, Atharvaveda, and Samhitäs of the Yajurveda-the Taittiriya and Vajasaneyi, with translations in English by Griffith, Wilson, Macdonell, M. Muller (hymns to the Maruts), H. Olden- berg (hymns to Agni), Whitney (AV), and Keith (TS). II. The Epics; Ramayana of Valmiki and the Mahabharata together with the Harivamia. III. The Puranas: Vayu P. (Anandasrama Press, Poona); Matsya P. (do.); Märkandeya P. (Syamakasi Press, Mathura); Siva Mahápurana (do.); Kūrma P. (Venkatesvara Press, Bombay); Padma P. (do.); Brahma- vaivarta P. (do.); Brahma P. (do); Skanda P. (do.); Varaha P.(do.); Brahmanda P. (do.); Náradiya Maha, (do.); Linga P. (do.); Bhavisya P. (do.); Garuda P. (do.); Bhagavata P. (Gita Press, Gora- khapur); Vişnu P. (do.); the Jaina Maha P. (Adi P. and Uttara P. by Jinasenācārya and Gunabhadrâcárya, Syâdväda Granthamála, No. 4). IV. All the works of Kálidasa and Bhavabhūti; Anargha-raghava of Mura- ri; Prasanna-raghava of Jayadeva; Prabodha-candrodaya of Krspa Miśra Yati; Venisamhara of Bhatta Narayana; Mrochakatika of Südraka; Subhadra-Dhananjaya and Tapati-samvarana of Kulas- ekhara Varma; Sisupala-vadha of Magha; Saundarananda of Afva- ghoşa; Kirátârjuniya of Bhåravi; Naişadha-carita of Sriharsa; Gita-govinda of Jayadeva; Bhartrhari's Satakatrayam; Natya-śástra of Bharata Muni; Bala-Ramayana of Kavi-fekhara; Rāmāyaṇa- mañjari & Bharata-mañjari of Kşemendra; Amaru-Sataka; Kad- ambari Pürva-bhága; Pañcatantra; Hitopadeśa; Aryasaptašati of Govardhana; Vikramäñkadeva-carita of Bilhana; Bhojaprabandha of Ballála; Buddhacarita of Ašvaghosa; Kautillya Arthasastra; Mudra-raksasa of Visakhadatta; Works published in Kävyamálá series Nos. 3-7, 9 & 14; Subhäşita-ratna-bhändägaram (Venkates- vara Press, Bombay) and quotations under Bird-names in Sabda- kalpadruma; Yasastilaka-campů of Somecieva Sûri; Nala-campú of Trivikrama; Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira, and Vasantaraja- śäkuna, for birds of augury; Katha-sarit-sagara; Kausika Sutra, edited by M. Bloomfield, JAOS Vol. XIV; Samadhiraja-Sotra (Gilgita Mss. Vol. II); Smrtinam Samuccayaḥ, Poona; Yajňavalkya Smrti; Dharm-shastra-sangraha, Vol, 1; Apastamba Dharma-Sutra; ( xviii ) Manusmrti; Mrga-paksi-sastra of Hamsadeva, translated by M. Sundaracarya. V. Protection of birds: The fifth Pillar Edict of Emperor Asoka prohibits the killing of about ten birds; and so do several Smrti works, e.g. Manusmrti, ch. 5. 11-14; Vispusmrti, ch. 50. 32-38, and ch. 51. 29-31, prescribes expiation for eating them; the Parásarasmrti or samhita,ch. 6. 2-8, provides expiation for the killing of different birds numbering about thirty-six in all. VI. Prakrit and Pali works: Lalita-vistar, Dr. Rajendralala Mitra's edn. Supás-nähacariam (Supārsvanáthacaritam) of Laksmana-gani. Oyavaiya-suttam (Aupapatika Sütram), edited by N.G. Suru, Poona. Panhavägarnaim (Prainavyákaranam), the tenth Anga of the Jaina canon, ed. by Amulya Candra Sen (Wurzburg), Section 3, ch. 1, mentions over fifty-birds. Sutta-Nipata; Digha-Nikaya; Anguttara-Nikaya; Majjhima-Nikaya, of the Pali Text Series. Sandesa-Rásaka of Abdur-rahamana Singhi Jaina Malá, No. 22, ed. by Shri Jina Vijaya Muni. Verses, 140 & 144, mention the pleasant notes of certain birds during the rainy season; others in 164 & 165, during autumn; and others in 217, during spring. The Jataka: quite a number of Jätaka stories have bird-titles, e.g. Tittiri Jataka; Kukkuta J.; Hamsa J.; Baka J. etc., and more than fifty different birds are mentioned in them. VII. Medical works: classify The Mamsa-Varga of the Samhitäs of Caraka and Suśn the birds empirically under four groups and describe the properties of their flesh for use as medicine, but while the book Hastyayur- veda does so for the treatment of the wounds and diseases of the elephant, it also recommends the keeping of the royal mount in the jungle and near water during the spring, rains, and autumn, where he is expected to improve his health and also poetically to enjoy the company and the music of the birds-also the roar of the tiger. The Bhela-Samhita, said to be older than the Caraka, prescribes the flesh of the various birds more often than Caraka and Suśruta for the treatment of various human diseases. VIII, Sanskrit, Pali, Präkrit and other lexicons: Amarakośa; Abhidhana-cintamani and Anekartha-samgraha of Hemacandra, the latter with the comm of Mahendra, cd. by Th. Zachariae (Vienna); Abhidhana-ratnamåla of Halayudha; Raja- nighantu of Harihara Pandita; Bhavaprakasa-nighantu of Sri Bhava Misra; Visva-prakasa of Maheśvara Sudhi; Anekartha-kośa of Sasvata; Trikandasesa of Purusottama; Visvalocana or Muktavali- xix ( ) kosa of Sridhhara-senacarya; Astanga-hrdaya-kośa compiled by K.M. Vaidya (Trichura); Kalpadrukośa of Keśava (Baroda); Vacaspatyam of Taranatha Bhattacharya; Abhidhana-Ratnamală of Halayudha; Ratnasamanvayakośn of Raja Sábaji; Vaijayantikola of Yadava Prakasa; Mankh kośa, ed. by T. Zachariae; Medini-kośa; Sabdartha-cintamani-kośa; Dhanvantari-nighantu; Madanpala- nighantu; Sabda-Kalpadruma of Rådhåkänta Deva; several Upadi Sutras; and Hindi Sabda-Sågara; Paia-sadda-mahannavo (Prakrit- šabda-mahârnava; a comprehensive Prakrit-Hindi Dict. with Sanskrit equivalents); Desinäma-måla of Hemacandra; Päialachhi-nama- mala of Dhanapala; Abhidhana-rajendra; Ardha-magadhi-kośa; Abhidhänappadipika by Muni Jina Vijaya; Bird-names extracted. from tho Pali Dictionary compiled by the Pali Text Society; Mundari- English Dict. by N.B. Bhaduri; Mahá-vyutpatti-kośa (Bibliotheca Buddhica, XIII). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, and English and Sanskrit Dictionary, by M. Williams; Practical Sanskrit-English Dict. by V.S. Apte; Sanskrit Worterbuch (by Otto Bohtlingk & Rudolph Roth) from which references for about fifty bird-names were extracted; Diction- ary of Kashmirian Language, by Sir G.A. Grierson. IX. Books on birds: Fauna of British India--Birds, 1st ed. by E.W. Oates, and 2nd ed. by S. Baker; Birds of India, by T.C. Jerdon; Popular Hand-book of Indian Birds, by H. Whistler; Indian Birds or Avifauna of British India, by James A. Murray; Game Birds of India, 1. by Hume and Marshall (Vols. 2 & 3), 2. by S. Baker; Indian Ducks and Their Allies, by S. Baker; Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali; Birds of Prey of Punjab, by C.H. Donald (Bombay N.H.S., vol., XXVI); Bāz-Nama-i-Nasiri, by Hussain and Lt. Col. D.C. Phillot; Birds of the Indian Garden, by T. Bainbrigge; Birds of Darjeeling and India, by L.J. Mackintosh and C.M. Inglis; Common Birds of India, by Douglas Dewar and Yeats; Cambridge Natural History, Vol. IX., by A.H. Evans; Several Vols. of ornithology of the Naturalists Library, and also of Stray Feathers by A. O. Hume & others; Cassell's Book of Birds edited by T.R. Jones; Hume's Nest and Eggs of Indian Birds; and few others. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, by Macdodell & Keith, for birds in Vedic literature; Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics; Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th and 14th edns. LIST OF COLOUR PLATES PLATE I 1. Indian Grey Shrike 2. Indian Baybacked Shrike 3. Rufous backed Shrike Indian White-bellied Drongo Indian Golden Oriole 4. 5. 6. Crow-billed Drongo 7. 8. Marshall's Iora 9. Grey Hypocolius or Shrike-Bulbul Waxwing 10. White-breasted Swallow Shrike 1. European Tree Pie 2. Tawny Pipit 3. Redthroated Pipit 4. Central Asian Water Pipit 5. Upland Pipit 6. Blue-headed Yellow Wagtail Head of Grey-headed Head of Turkestan Black-headed 7. Indian White Wagtail 8. PLATE II Head of Masked Wagtail Northern Yellow-headed Wagtail 1. Red-faced Malkoha 2. Sirkeer Cuckoo 3. Hawk-Cuckoo 4. Blossomheaded Parakeet 5. Layard's Parakeet 6. Ceylon Lorikeet 7. Violet Cuckoo 8. Banded Bay Cuckoo 9. Small Cuckoo 10 Drongo Cuckoo PLATE III Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Changeable Hawk-Eagle 2. White-bellied Sea-Eagle 3. Hodgson's Hawk Eagle 4. Short-toed Eagle 5. Eastern Steppe-Eagle 6. Greater Spotted Eagle 7. Golden Eagle 8. Imperial Eagle 1. 2. Crested Serpent Eagle Forest Eagle Owl 3. 4. Crested Hawk Eagle 5. Rufous-bellied Hawk Eagle 1. Spotted Sandgrouse 2. Large Pintail Sandgrouse Grey-headed Fishing Eagle 3. Tibetan Sandgrouse 4. Coronetted Sandgrouse 5. Imperial Sandgrouse 6. Indian Sandgrouse 7. Painted Sandgrouse (xxii) PLATE IV 4 Greylag Goose 5. Lesser Whistling Teal 6. Barheaded Goose 7. Brahminy Duck PLATE V 8. Large Whistling Teal 9. Spotbill Duck 10. Mallard 1. Nakta 2. White-winged Wood Duck 3. Cotton Teal PLATE VI PLATE VII 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 6. 7 8 9 10 1. Demoiselle Crane 2. The Black-necked Crane 3. The Hooded Crane 4. The Great White or Siberian Crane 5. The Eastern Common Crane 6. Macqueen's Bustard (or Houbara) The Little Bustard 7. 8. The Lesser Florican 9. 10. The Bengal Florican The Great Indian Bustard I. Rosy Pelican 2. White Stork 3. Black Stork 4. Flamingo 5. 6. Lesser Flamingo Bearded Vulture (xxiii) PLATE VIII 7. Himalayan Griffon 8. Scavenger Vulture 9. Common Peafowl 5. Giant Heron 6. Black Ibis 7. Glossy Ibis 8. Spoonbill 9. Yellow Bittern 10. Little Bittern PLATE IX PLATE X 1. Red-tailed Tropic Bird 2. Great White-bellied Heron 3. Indian Reef Heron 4. Bittern PLATE XI 1. Blue-breasted Banded Rail 2. Purple Moorhen 3. Painted Snipe 4. Pheasant-tailed Jacana Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fig. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 Fig. 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 Fig. 1 2 4 5. Chinese White-breasted Waterhen 6. Moorhen 7. Bronze-winged Jacana 8. Coot 9. Masked Finfoot 10. Kora or Water-cock 1. Wigeon 2. Gadwall 3. Common Teal 4. Pintail 5. White-eyed Pochard 6. Tufted Duck ( xxiv ) 7. Garganey 8. Shoveller 9. Greater Crested Crebe 10 Little Grebe PLATE XII Plates I to VI placed immediately after Chapter 50; Plates VII To XII immediately after Chapter 60 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 9 10 समीक्षध्वं महारण्य दर्श बहुमृगद्विजम् । [Do please observe well the area full of wild animals and birds in this great forest.] इदं च रमणीयं ते प्रतिभाति वनस्पते । इमे विहगास्तात! रमन्ते मुदितास्त्वयि ॥ एषां पृथक् समस्तानां श्रूयते मधुरः स्वरः । पुष्पसंमोदने काले वाशतां सुमनोहरम् ॥ MBh 12.150. 14-15 [This magnificent picture of thine is very charming indeed, O Lord of the forest, when these birds are happily enjoying themselves upon trees, O dear! and their sweet musical notes are distinctly heard as they sing beautifully during the season of fragrant flowers (the Spring).] 1 CROWS & THEIR ALLIES A. RAVENS & CROWS 1. In the Crow tribe we find "bird brains at their highest", and recogni- tion of the virtues and vices of the common Crow is writ large in Sanskrit literature, the Jätaka-Stories and Folk-Tales. The art of the q for examlpe, is fully illustrative of the wisdom and shrewd cunning of our friend, the House-Crow. Popular tradition places him on a footing of equality with that universal character, the barber: नराणां नापितो धूर्तः पक्षिणां चैव वायस -Subhā. 159, 279. the common 2. Among Indian birds, the Crow enjoys the distinction of having the largest number of names and adnouns or epithets in the Sanskrit language. The wg has collected no fewer than 36 synonyms Crow and yet the list is by no means exhaustive. The expression f used in grafgat, ch. 11, stands for the 'the Crow family or Corvidae, and both w and are in general use for any Crow. The poets, however, have often used synonyms like , satser, farge, etc., to suit their verse. 3. Generally speaking, Indian Crows may be placed in the following seven easily recognizable categories:- (i) The all-black Punjab and Tibetan Ravens (length 26"-28") which are quite as large as, though lighter than, the Common Pariah Kite (शकुनि), and they are the कृष्णशकुन or कृष्णशकुनि of the Vedas and द्रोणकाक (दुए हितायें) of literature. (ii) The Brown-necked Raven of Sind (22") of an umber-brown colour, more so on the neck and shoulders, is the cent of rite you and probably of the lexicons. (iii) The Carrion and Jungle Crows (19"), entirely black, heavier than the House-Crow but much smaller than the Raven is the pers, or simply the proper in a specific sense. They are also the r of AV. 11.9.9 and 12.4.8. 1. These and other Sanskrit names in this para are discussed later on. 2 Birds in Sanskrit Literature (iv) The Rook (19") is wholly black but the adult bird has the basal third of its bill almost white. It is the frater or the Black-and- white-billed Crow of and probably the of the lexicons (v) The Eastern Hooded Crow (19") has the entire head and neck, the central part of the upper breast, the wings and tail glossy black. The upper and lower back and underparts are drabgrey. It is the the 'Black-faced' Crow of EUM. P (vi) The House-Crow (17") which appropriates the daily furafer of the twice-born, and the offerings to the dead is the afage or . It bears the distinctive name of भरमच्छविकाक after its grey neck and breast in वसंतरान. It the writers of the lexicons. (vii) The Jackdaw of Kashmir (13"), migrating in winter to the near- by plains, is the fes (thieving Crow) of Mahabharata and of वसन्तराज As a preliminary to a detailed consideration of these varieties, a workable classification of Crows may be referred to here. The referater mentions three kinds of Crows, viz., (a) ters, the Raven, (b) ere, the all black Crow like the Carrion and Jungle Crows, and (c) ara, the House-Crow. The fag, 6. 8. also distinguishes between and ara, and the distinction has been observed in the Mahabharata and the Purâņas where punishments based upon the doctrine of re-birth are provid- ed for petty larceny. Persons stealing fish or flesh, for instance, are destin- ed to be reborn as the carrion-eating a while those filching iron goods would become 448. Again, the punishment for theft of milk is rebirth as an all-white Egret (, afer) based upon a similarity of colour, or a T by way of a complete contrast of colour. Similarly, in poetic compari- sons between the Crow and the Indian Koel the former is invariably a

• , and not a , thus emphasizing the jet black of the plumage com-

mon to both. Speaking generally, however, this distinction between the ** and the has faded away both in the lexicons and the popular mind. Even Varahamihira and others have not observed it. 5. अमरकोश has द्रोण and काकोल for the Raven, andकाक, etc., for other species including the House Crow अभि० चिन्तामणि, कल्पo and राजनिषण्ड have adopted this two-fold division but give additional names under each of them. The common names for a Crow need not detain us but the so- called synonyms for the Raven require some consideration. These are :- (a) वृद्ध, द्रोण, दग्ध, कृष्ण, पर्वतेभ्यस्त्वसी पर. (each of these cpithets followed by the word काकः) बनाश्रयश्च काकोल -अभि० चिन्तामणि 1. M. Bh. 13.111,123; Brahma P. 217, 108. 2. M. Bh. 13.111, 102; Märk. P. 15,; Garuda P. 1.226,25; Brahma P. 217, 107. art in the last two is clearly a w.r, for te (iron). 3. M. Bh. 13.111, 110; Märk, P. 15, 22; Garuda P. 2.2,80; Brahma P. 217, 98. 4. Manu, 12, 62: Yajñavalkya, 3, 214, Crows and their Allies (b) धय पलप्रियः अरण्यवायसो द्रोणः काकोलो घनवागपि द्रोणकाको महाप्राणः स प्रोक्तः क्रूरवागपि (c) द्रोणस्तु द्रोणकाकः स्यात् काकोलोऽरण्यवायसः । बनवासी महाप्राणः क्रूररावी फल (पल? ) प्रियः ॥ The 4t has a mixed list : (d) द्रोण: सकृत्प्रजोरिष्टो ध्वाडक्षः करट इत्यपि कृष्णकाको वृद्धकाक ऐन्द्रिः काकोल आसुरः । कल्पकोश. - राजनिघण्टु. 3 An examination of the above synonyms for the Raven shows that lexico- graphers have treated all black Crows including the Raven as varieties of a common type. Nevertheless, some at least of the above names, based as they are on some characteristic of each bird, offer the best clue to the ident- ity of their respective owners. The lexicons, as is well known, were prepared as help to the poets to enable them to pick out words that would suit the metre in hand, and this has resulted in a mix-up of names of allied forms everywhere. The point is that some of the apparent synonyms for re are really specific for other black Crows while a number of descriptive epi- thets like ,, etc., have been converted into adnouns or subs- tantive names. It may well be that when the Indo-Aryans spread beyond and away from the Punjab the Jungle Crow (me or ) replaced the Raven in their minds and thus came to be equated with it in the lexicons. At the same time the Brown-necked Raven, the Rook and the Jackdaw were forgotten or lost their identity. 6. tr, author of an alleged book of the 13th century entitled refer E, perhaps available in translation only, has arbitrarily selected twelve. names for describing as many varieties of the Crow and given fanciful des- criptions of them. His treatment of other birds also, with exceptions here and there, is equally fanciful but even his absurd classification makes it 1. For the f-T See Section C of this article. 2. The name, fz (lit. son of Indra), is based upon a story related in Padma Puriņa, Uttara Khanda, Ch. 242, Nrimha P., Ch. 43, and in the interpolated chapter, between chs, 95 and 96, of Ayodhya Kanda of Valmiki Ramayana (Bombay ed.). Jayanta, the son of Indra, assuming the form of a crow, insulted Sità and Rama punished him by depriving him of one of his eyes. Since then crow is supposed to have only one eye which, however, moves from one eye-socket into the other, for does not the crow turn his head from side to side when he looks at things below from a high perch? This story is also the basis of the rule of logic known as काकासिगोलकन्याय. 3. are here simply means demon-like and are ar (the devil of a crow) can only be the Raven. No lexicon gives are or age for a crow. 4. He postulates twelve varieties of crow under the names- 1. काक, 2. करट, 3. बलिपुष्ट 4.5. 11. द्रोणकाक, and 12. काकोल. 6. आत्मघोष 7. परभूत 8 बायस, 9 चिरजीविनु, 10. मौकूलि, Birds in Sanskrit Literature. clear that he was aware of the fact that all Crows did not fall into two classes only, and, undoubtedly, this awareness must have been shared by the more widely travelled lexicographers though unfortunately they did not care to connect particular names with particular birds. 4 7. वसन्तराज शाकुलम् a treatise on augury describes five different kinds of Crow according to the five-fold division of the Hindu society, viz., fax, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य, शूद्र and पञ्चम...a method of classification which was much in favour during a certain period of Indian literary history. The descriptions, however, are sufficiently clear and enable us to identify the species intended by the author : (i) बृहत्प्रमाणो गुरुदीघंतुण्डो दृढस्वरः कृष्णवपुः स विप्रः । (ii) पिङ्गाक्षनीलास्यविमिश्रवर्णः स्यात्वात्रियो स्क्षरवोऽतिशूरः । (iii) आपाण्डनील सितनीलच नात्यन्तरूक्षो रटितंय वैश्यः । (iv) भस्मच्छवि: भूरिककारशब्दः शूद्रः कृशाङ्कः च पलोतिरुक्षः । (v) विक्षसूक्ष्मास्य तनुः विशडकः यः कन्धरां दीघंतरा विभति स्थिराननः स्थैयं समेतबुद्धिः काकोऽन्त्यजातिः स तु पञ्चमोऽ -Varga, 12. 3-5 (i) describes the all-black Crow of large size, possessing a long and heavy bill. It is clearly the Raven later on called by him the are. It is the बुद्धकाक (बृहत्रमाण) of वैजयंती. (ii) refers to a black-faced Crow of different colours (evidently, black and drab-grey) and brown eyes. It is the Hooded Crow-the TIK, (iii) describes a Crow of black colour but with a different shade and with a black and white bill. It is the Rook -the foreftersgere. (iv) contains a description of the slim, partly ash-coloured and very noisy Crow. It is the House-Crowthe werfere of Vasantaraja, of afgem and the afarge of the lexicons. (v) defines the self-possessed and confident looking bird with a not un- pleasant voice (fire, with fr as privation prefix; cf. of the second and me of the third variety) and a small bill and body. This is the Jackdaw--the gears of Vasantaraja, and the fe of Mahabharata. 8. The Punjab and Tibetan Ravens are entirely black and have powerful bills. They are the boldest among Crows and attack birds, weak mammals including freshly dropped lambs and the eyes of lambing ewes, young pup- pies, etc., wherein probably lies the germ of these birds being regarded 1. See घोटक द्रुम, and हस्ती in [शब्दकल्पद्रुम Even gems have been so classified in यूनित कल्पतरू 2. This 13" bird with a bill of 1.5" and tail a little over 5 as against the 17.5" House-crow with a bill of 2" and tail of 7" has been supposed to have a comparatively long neck, i.e., as compared to its size, unless the text is corrupt. Crows and their Allies as evil and inauspicious by the Vedic Indians who had a pastoral and agri- cultural economy. "With all the Raven's solemnity of voice and stateliness of carriage, the great bird is an enemy." This "magnificent felon" is, most prabably the कुष्ण शबून of Rv. 10. 16, 6 and Av. 12. 3, 13, कृष्णशकुनि of Av. 7. 64, and गौतम स्मृति, ch. 17, and simply शनि of है. आरण्यक, 4.35. The terms and in these names imply the large size of the bird as explained in M.W. and the Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. Later names for the Raven are दोषकाक, आसुर काकोल (the devil of a Crow), दण्ड काफ (दयः यमः bird of the god of Death), and a (the great Crow) as found in the lexicons (c.g. द्रोण: बुढवायने महीप.). The name बृरु (क) for a Crow should also belong to it as is the lamb-killing wolf. 5 9. The Brown-necked Raven has been named most appropriately as the . This name occurs in what appears to have been the original reading of the 9th verse of ch. 15 of the go as quoted by Sayana in his commentary on the पाराशर धर्मसंहिता प्रायश्चित्त काण्ड-2. ch. 12, Bom. Sansk. Series, Vol. 64, p. 265: परदाराभिगमने रक्तद्रोणस्तु जायते । It also points to (, of a brown colour) other name for it. M. Williams renders a Raven which is partly correct. The me , as if burnt, but goes on to specify the colour as black and then identifies the name with a which again is partly correct. in his of the lexicons as an- as an inauspicious Crow or explains the term as describes hay that has changed into a brown colour through long keeping or otherwise as (p. 164). Again, the body of sage Narada browned by penance is described as दग्ध in the स्कन्द पुराण, ब्रह्मखण्ड, 2, 1, 48: तपसा दग्धदेहोऽसि विष्णुभक्तिपरायणः । It will thus be seen that the word in stands for 'fire-scorched or sun-burnt' and hence for a brown colour, and accepting this meaning of the epithet I would identify as the Brown-necked Raven. 10. The Rook is black all over with a purplish blue gloss (arragefter) on the head, neck and lower parts and violet purple on the back. The base of the bill and face are white and devoid of feathers and the rest of the bill is black. It feeds chiefly in ploughed fields and grasslands on in- sects, seeds and grain. One of the names for a Crow is tef, descendant of , from a kind of pulse-grain, and it may belong to this bird as he is more of a vegetarian than his cousins (cf. for a horse), unless it is the same as fer for which see Para 12 below. 1. It is however more than likely that the the Carrion and Jungle crows. 2. The first gives atqufer as v.l. for for. of post-Vedic literature refers to Birds in Sanskrit Literature are is yet another name for a kind of Crow which, if from root ¹ to disappear' may belong to the Rook because he is only a winter visitor to the North-West of India including the Punjab and Kashmir. It must however be admitted that the etymology and correct significance of the names, fr, whefe and whenfe, are not at all clear. The names for the Hooded and the House Crows have already been given, but two other excellent names for the latter may be men- tioned. They are wr (the Crow of civilization) and (House- occurs in बग्निपुराण, 317, 37 as a substitute for गृहकारी Grow). The last name of Manu, 12, 66. It may also be stated that it is the House Crow which is the commonest victim of the Koel (Art. 37) and hence the epithet परभूत् for it. and 12. Turning to names like अरण्य or वन काक, पर्वत काक, कृष्णका, are and also perhaps gfer and shef it would appear that they are more. appropriate to the jet black Carrion and Jungle Crows than to the Raven. These all-black birds have been distinguished by बराहमिहिर 35 अन्यभूतपक्षकाक (black-plumaged like the Koel), ch. 94. 11, and by as T (black-necked in contrast with the grey-necked or wefa), ch. 12. 6, as a sub-class of the Raven. According to Vasantarâja the best Crow for pur- poses of augury is the Raven and the next in order of preference is van This term includes not only the Carrion and Jungle Crows but also the Hooded-Crow, while the House Crow comes as the last but one of his series (ch. 12. 6-8). The varfuafe, however, follows the lexical division of Crows into two groups and places the Raven and other black Crows in the group and the House Crow in the other : 6 कार्यकालेषु काकोलः प्रशस्तः स्याद्यया किल । न तथा वायसो जेवो ग्राह्मस्तु तवभावतः ॥ pp. 393-394 The ft, however, is helpful in a proper subdivision of the black birds into two types for the Raven is equated with "काकोल आसुरः" or आसुर काकोल, and it follows that the others are simply. This fits in admirably with the name age for the jet black Red-billed Chough discussed in the next section. The following verse maintains a clear distinction between 1. नमति पलायति नशाक: See, for similar formations, दगपाचायणादिवृतिः, 3.34. 2. Poet Jyotirisvara of Bihar compiled his book Varna-Ratnakara carly in the fourteenth century. It is a collection of items and suggestive phrases for the use of poets and story-writers under various heads. One of these is red (description of a thief) in the eighth Kallola, p. 66. It contains the phrase "affe", i.e. a thief should be described as possessing eyes like those of the or the variety of crow, for both these names are from root to disappear or fly away (Apte's Dictionary) and would seem to refer to the Rook. In the alternative these names may well belong to the jackdaw, a resident bird of Kashmir but a winter visitor to the Punjab, 3. Synonyms like काकनीला, काकजम्बू and [स्वाक्षजम्बू for the deep blue-black fruit of Eugenia Jombolana support the view put forth here. Crows and their Allies the smaller black Crows like the Jungle or Carrion Crow () and the Raven (, the same as w) on the one hand and between these and the House Crow () on the other :- गृधः कपोतः काकोलो वायसो वाऽपि मूर्द्धनि । कव्यादो वा खगो नीलः षण्मासायुः प्रदर्शकः ॥ -Mark. Purâna, 40. 8. The name fe is evidently coined after the Vedic w. The mention. of three different types of Crow in this verse agrees exactly with the three types named in the महाव्युत्पत्ति, viz. द्रोणकाक, काक and [वागस (Sec. 213). काकोल, pers, and are therefore synonymous with one another for the Carrion and Jungle Crows, but in literature they are mentioned simply as or ter :- शुष्कवृक्षस्थितो ध्वाडक्ष आदित्याभिमुखस्तथा । मगि चोदयते वामं चक्षुधोरमसंशयम् ॥ मूर्ख ध्वाङ्क्ष न लज्जसेऽप्यसदृशं पाण्डित्यमुन्नाटयन् । काष्य कोकिलकाकयोः किल यथा भेदो भृशं भाषिते । -Kavya-malá, pt. 7, Vairagyaśataka, 98. काके' कार्ण्यमलौकिकं धवलिमा हंसे। -Bhoja-prabandha, 269. मृच्छकटिक, 9.11 -Subhasita. 222, 38. काकः कृष्णः पिकः कृष्णः को भेदः पिककाकयोः । 7 -Ibid. 225. 120, also 225, 122; 221, 205. of tafe has a list of items of a black colour in Section, 3 The औौगादिकपदा and , but not re is one of them. This distinction between the two is further strengthened by the following :- गृधः शृगालः काकवायुको वासस्था -Bhela Samhità, p. 108 it s not possible to allocate Turning to the names अरण्यकाक, पर्वतकाक, or any of them to a particular species as both the Eastern Carrion Crow and the Himalayan Jungle Crow are found in the Himalayas, the former in Kashmir and the latter from Afghanistan to Bhutan, while the Indian Jungle Crow occurs throughout India south of the Himalayas, and since it is not easy to distinguish the three varieties in the field these names must be regarded as synonymous with and for them. in 1. कृष्ण का के-हेमचन्द्र, both being jer black. The flag of यम consists of a huge वामor black crow made of iron कार्ष्णलोहमयो क्षमस्याभून्हाध्वज स्कन्दपुराण, कौमारिका qve, Ch. 16. Birds in Sanskrit Literature the following example, placed with the vulture and jackal in a battle-field, presumably in the plains of North India, is the Indian Jungle crow :-- 8 शृगालगृध्रकाकोला: सदस्यास्तत्र पत्रिणः | -म० भा० 12, 98, 16. 13. The case for मौकुलि' (v. 1. मौकलि ?) is perhaps a little different. Hemacandra equates it with a which shows that it is a black Crow, and when we find that a flock of Crows (fr) has been placed in the forest near the Godavari in South-India by poet Bhavabhūti it is but reasonable to conclude that it is the southern variety of the Jungle Crow. This, according to Whistler, is a highly gregarious species and large. numbers collect to roost in special patches of forest, though never so many together as in the case of the House Crow. tyfer like is thus found to be specific for the Jungle Crow - 'गुञ्जत्कुञ्ज-कुटीर-कौशिक-घटा-घूत्कारवत्कीचक- • स्तम्बाडम्बरमूकमौकुलिकुलः क्रौञ्चावतोऽयं गिरिः । -Uttara Ramacarita, 2, 29 The 14. The brief description of the gre given by is fully borne out by what Whistler has to say about the Jackdaw. They are "as tame and impudent as the House Crow ..The call is more musical whole demeanour is pert and knowing... though the irresistible attraction which small bright articles have for the Jackdaw often makes it a nuisance about a house when tame enough to be allowed out of its cage" The last trait, described elsewhere as "a notoriety for thieving" helps us to appropriate the name fer to it :- लवणं चोरयित्वा तु चौरिकाकः प्रजायते । -महाभारत 12. 111, 123 (Cal. Ed.) The Bombay edition reads fafter which, however, is the Green Magpie, and in a way both are equally correct, for both the birds are champion thieves of glittering trinkets and other small objects lying about the house. The propriety of the punishment lies in the fact that a person who steals salt-a most precious thing in olden times-is condemned to be a thief for all his life in the next birth. 15. Albinism is not unknown in crows and a completely white bird of the House Crow variety is occasionally met with. The Museum at Nagpur has a specimen. It is known as T or and is always considered inauspicious वसन्तराज calls it धवल वायस at 12.127:- 1. This name may be from , a half open bud, after the bird's semi-erectile feathers of the head. Crows and their Allies The white Ibis also has been occasionally mentioned as a vas. i.e. the white water-crow (Art. 80). काको मैथुनसक्तश्च श्वं तस्तु यदि दृश्यते । राजा वा म्रियते तत्न स च देशो विनश्यति ॥ -मत्स्यपुराण, 237, 11 यद्वीक्ष्यते खलानां माहात्म्यं क्वापि दैवयोगेन । काकानामिव शौक्ल्यं तदपि हि न चिरादनर्थाय ॥

- आर्यासप्तशती, 465. 16. All Crows including the Raven were regarded as inauspicious and evil throughout the Vedic period and contamination of sacrificial or ceremonial objects, food, and the human body by one was a dreaded thing, but with the development of the science of augury (g) there came about a slight change their status for the better. Books on the subject contain chapters upon the interpretation their behaviour and voice for good or ill, and instances are not wanting even, in ancient literature where the sight or call of a Crow has been held to be auspicious¹ - यत आगच्छति काकः ततं भागच्छति वरः वायसः पादपगतः प्रहृष्टमपि जति पक्षी मां तु विशालाक्ष्याः समीपमुपनेष्यति अमेध्यपूर्णवदनः काकः सर्वार्थसाधकः Agni Purăņa, 223, 13. Finally, even the best of us has something to learn from the wily but sagacious bird for in the chapter on राजधर्म in अग्नि पुराण, 225, 30 a king is advised always to be on his guard, i.e. suspicious, like a Crow : -Kausika Sūtra, 34. 24 9 -Rāmāyaṇa, 4.55, 56 See M. Bh. 6.3.67 "काकशङ्की भवेन्नित्यम्" "Timid like a crow" for r in M. Williams is perhaps a little in- correct. See also verse 402 at page 162 offre where no fewer than five good points of the bird have been commended. B. CHOUGHS Choughs resemble the true Crows and are of a glossy black colour but differ from them all in having the bill and feet brilliantly coloured. The bill is fairly long, slender and pointed, with a gentle curve throughout. 1. The crow and particularly the Raven and their voice are regarded as unlucky- occasionally auspicious as well-in many parts of the world. See Ency. Religion and Ethics, Vol. 10, p. 367. Birds in Sanskrit Literature The Red-billed Chough, known in England as the 'Red-legged Crow', has vermilion-red bill and legs while its cousin, the Yellow-billed Chough, is characterized by a yellow bill but vermilion legs. Both are very social. and noisy birds, haunting human camps and the wilds alike. They nest on rocky cliffs and are found throughout the Himalayas from 5,000 ft. in winter to 16,000 ft. above the sea level in summer. 10 2. If the adjective पर्यंत in पर्वतकाक is in apposition to अरण्य or वन in अरण्य for the Jungle Crow as also to the plains of the Punjab and or Uttar Pradesh next below the Himalayas, the name belong to these denizens of the Himalayas. In any Crows designated as aar: in the story related Mahabharata, 6.6, 14-15. Here the Vulture, u, proud of his noble descent from the great , regrets that Mount Meru does not observe any distinction of high and low, and offers equal hospitality to the mean Crows merely because they too, like him, have gold on their bodies, and decides, there- fore, to quit the place permanently :- विहगः सुमुखो यस्तु सुपर्णस्यात्मजः किल । सर्व विचिन्तयामास सौवर्णान् वीक्ष्य वायसान् ॥ मेरुरुत्तममध्यानामधमानां च पक्षिणाम् । अविशेषकरो यस्मात्तस्मादेनं त्यजाम्यहम् ॥ a may well. case they are the Now is the Black Vulture with red head and neck (Art. 51) and the Golden Crows are indeed the Coughs with red or golden bills and red feet contrasting beautifully with their glistening black plumage. They occupy the central Himalayas while the Black Vulture does not rise higher than the and lower ranges and is quite at home in the plains below. The story hical explanat of these facts of nature and gives us the beautiful name of सुवर्ण for the Choughs. thus a 3. The Red-billed Chough (17.5") with its fiery looking, conical, and pointed bill reminds one of the age or -red-billed Crows-who torture sinners in hell according to statements in some of the Puräņas :- लोहतुण्डश्च काकोलः हन्यमानः सुदारुणः आप्लुत्याप्लुत्य दुर्दष्ट्रकाकोलंः लोहतुण्डकैः भक्ष्यन्ते कृमिभिः तीक्ष्णैः लोहतुण्डैश्च वायसैः Padma P., Uttara Kh. 250, 13 Sk. P., Kasi Kh. 5, 75 Śiva P. 5. 9, 11 1. atacar. lit. the beautifully coloured bird. We thus have gf for gold and red- ochre, and gaf for turmeric, while the female lac-insect has been described fi golden, after the light orange red of the body and the rich red fluid it contains in AV 5.5. See Lac and the Lac Insect in the Atharva-Veda by the author (The International Academy of Culture, Nagpur, 1950). Crows and their Allies 11 The name is fully justified for these birds as they are as black as the Jungle or Carrion Crow. We thus have the following three types of te or jet-black Crows - (i) काकोल – the Jungle and Carrion Crows; (ii) लोहतुण्ड काकोल— the Red billed Chough; (iii) आसुर काकोल- the Raven. 4. The authors of the above Purāņas must have visited sacred places like Amarnath, Badrinath, Gangotri, etc., in the Himalayas and seen the Choughs which are common in those parts. The Yellow-billed bird is comparatively small (16") and his ineffective looking yellow bill has helped to exempt him from Satanic duties in hell, but if by any chance. his services were needed, one may be sure, he would have been summoned under the name of स्वर्णतुण्ड काकोल C. NUTCRACKERS The Nutcrackers are smaller than the House-Crow being about 15 inches in length. They have a chocolate-brown plumage with head and neck streaked white, and back and breast marked with oval white drops. The Larger-spotted Nutcracker is the darker bird, more profusely marked with white than the Himalayan Nutcracker. The former occurs from Kashmir to Sikkim and the latter from Nepal eastwards. As the name indicates, they subsist largely on the seeds of the pine, cedar, fir, spruce, etc., also fruits and insects. Names like fa-, -, and -() are given merely as synonyms for a Crow in some of the lexicons but they clearly belong to these fruit- eating and spotted members of the Crow family. () is the spotted deer and af the (spotted) leopard, and these help to fix the identity of the birds as above. M. Williams does not mention all the birds that go under the name of a but the Hindi Sabda-sågara gives it for a Crow as well. The greferater para. 213, gives af towards the end of its bird- list where bats and some insects are named and it is therefore doubtful how far the name aft corresponds to fra of M. Williams. It is however quite probable that the name af is shared by animal, bird and insect having spotted bodies or wings. D MAGPIES Magpies are an interesting group within the Crow family some species of which occur practically throughout India and some are confined 1. The art art of Mahavyutpatti Kosa, 2.15.21 is no other than the er and clearly points to these names being specific. The substitution of अवस for लोह must be taken in the sense of copper-red. 12 Birds in Sanskrit Literature to the outer Himalayas and the valleys to the south including Nepal. They are long-tailed birds of arboreal habits, and their attitude when perched on trees or the uncommonly long tails of some of them drooping in a gentle curve probably suggested to the highly imaginative ancients the striking resemblance which their body-lines bear to the shape of the village-plough or its long shaft, or perhaps to a long-shafted hammer (; cf. their Hindi name महलाठ, fr. महा great and यष्टि लाठ लट्ठि– a stick or pole) and they gave them the common name of or reft, and differ- entiated three principal types as under :- (i) (ii) (iii) g (M. W.)-the Indian, the Bengal and the Himalayan Tree- pies, the smallest of the series. (Matsya P.)- allied forms like the Kashmir and Black- rumped Magpies; and (Varahamihira)- the Red-billed and the Yellow-billed Blue Magpies, having the longest tails. 2. The treatment of these noisy birds by Varahamihira and Vasanta- raja from the point of view of augury goes to show that their sight or calls have the same value and this accounts for a mix up of the names of at least two different Magpies in the synonymy given in the far and in the terms used by Vasantaraja at several places in his work :- भष, कूटपूरि, कु-रवक, करायिका, पर्णकूटसंज्ञाः स्युः -Var. Br. S., 87, 4. करायिका, कुरुकुञ्चिता भष, कूटपूर, सोमटिका and दुर्गा Vasant. 4.21, 56-65; 11.2 & 5 It will be seen that names like भष, कुरवक, कुरुकुञ्चिता and करायिका (कु-राविका?) are after the harsh call-notes of the birds and have their analogues in feat and of the Hill-men for the Himalayan Tree-pie (F.B.I.). These names belong to the Tree-Pies which are the commonest members of the group found all over North India and elsewhere too. कराविका of वसन्त- is clearly an incorrect reading of the earlier of the Samhità. tafe, on the other hand, which may be rendered as 'the bird marked with a crescent' should be a Common name for all magpies (ft) as the white, lilac white or rufous red of the lower break has a sharp crescentic outline against the black upper breast in everyone of them it may well imply a mysterious bird, 1. also means a trick or anigma, and particularly as a bird of omen. 2. The Hindi and Urdu names corresponding to this area and Hd both mean- 'the Moon'. If the name is by any means the same as if which again means कलापक (कलाँ पाति) i.c, चन्द्रक the moon, it would be the same as सोमटिक and it is possible that is a scribe's error for f, prakrit for rf, meaning a little moon or part of a moon, Crows and their Allies 13 showing up a three quarters crescent of the moon. That leaves the name gf which may be explained in two ways: (a) 'approached or seen with difficulty' and hence, found in inaccessible places; and (b) having the dark or bluish complexion of the goddess of that name, described as "arret- पुष्पवर्णाभा" in कालिकापुराण, quoted under दुर्गा in Sabdakalpadrima. The expression means, 'of the colour of the linseed flowers, i.e., of a light blue colour. gf for a Magpie, therefore, should properly belong to the Blue Magpies of the Himalayas, gef is also the Blue Rock Thrush (Art. 10). 3. The classification of the series may now be considered further - (i) The Indian and the Himalayan Tree-pies belong to genus Dend- rocitta and closely resemble one another. They have sooty black head and neck, and buffish-brown upperparts with a tail of eight to eleven inches. Being the smallest of the group they are the कृशकूट (कृश small), कुरवक, भष (barking like a dog), fa etc., as noted above. In the commentary on Vasantarāja it is described as लम्बपुच्छा उपरिश्यामवर्णा and the position in which its movements and voice are to be studied for augury is when the bird is afgaar (ch. 11, 3), i.e., when it is perching on a tree outside the village or on an outer or exposed branch of a tree. Its voice is syllabified by Varahamihir as and by Whistler as 'kokli' or 'googely'. These particulars are more than sufficient to identify with the Tree-pie. Superstition surrounds the Magpie not only in India but also in England and Europe even at the present day. The Britannica, eleventh edition, refers to it in the following words "Superstition as to the appearance of the pie still survives even among many educated persons, and there are several versions of a rhyming adage... (which) all agree that the sight of a single pie presages sorrow". The authors of "Our Bird Book" (1947) also mention the common saying, "one for sorrow and two for joy" and add that in the former case people take off their hats to ward off the evil effect. In Indian literature too there is an occasional reference to the unlucky nature of the birds: यथाऽशुभ: कूटपक्षी सर्वशोकैः समुद्गतः । गृहं स प्रविशेद् यस्य तस्य नाशो भवेद् ध्रुवम् ।। -Padma P., Bhūmi Kh., 103, 70. On the other hand Vasantaraja mentions certain situations where the birds prove auspicious to the observer. 1. Cf. for the white-breasted kingfighter-Art. 41. 2. mar (a dog from its habit of eating its own vomit) in the list of birds in चरक is the same as भष of the बृहत्संहिता बालाद in M. W. is incorrect. In the first part of the list of t: in the dog is mentioned as T as one of the animals of prey. Birds in Sanskrit Literature. (ii) The Kashmir and the Black-rumped Magpies of genus Pica have the head, neck, upper breast, and upperparts black, and the wings are partly white and partly black, brilliantly glossed with blue. The tail also is black with a green and purple gloss. On the whole, therefore, the black colour predominates in their plumage and they should be the कालकूट (काल black) birds of the Himalayan hermitage described in the Matsya Purana :- 14 कुररान् कालकूटांश्च खट्वाङ्गाल्लुब्धकांस्तथा । -118, 50 (iii) The Red-billed and the Yellow-billed Blue Magpies of the Himalayas belong to genus Urocissa and are characterized by very long blue tails measuring 18-19 inches. In these as in others the head, neck and breast are black: the back is purplish blue or ashy; the wings have purplish blue on them; and the lower plumage from the breast downwards is greyish white or lilac-tinged with blue or purple. The long tail accounts for their Hindi name दिग्गदल (दीर्घदल; दल a feather; i.e., long-tailed; cf. er for the long-tailed Paradise Flycatcher, Art. 11). They are clearly the quiz marking the nearest approach to a in shape. The Variants e and given in para. 2 above are Prakritisms of grie. 4. The Green Magpie of genus Cissa differs very considerably in extremal character and plumage from others, and not having a long tail, stands outside the series. Its body plumage is generally green and the wing coverts are red. Bill and legs are a coral red, the former of a deeper colour. Its Sanskrit name is fefer (Parrot-Crow, fr. furft a Parrot) after its red bill and green plumage. It must have been a cage bird in former times as it makes an excellent pet and can be trained to talk. It is known as fefe in Hindi and Bengali which is perhaps a Prakrit form of fefcere. In certain dialects the letter is often replaced by , and by, while in the present instance the nasal has been inserted for the sake of euphony; cf. Hindi for Sansk. for lime-stone nodules. The nasal also helps to maintain the value of the long vowel of the penultimate in ffers. The name occurs in the Southern recension of the Mahabharata :- लवणं चोरयित्वा तु चिरिकाकः प्रजायते । -13. 111, 123; also Brahma P. 217, 108. The Bengal recension reads for which has been identified with the Jackdaw in Section A of this Article. The reason for the punishment also 1. चिरिकाकसिरियाग सिरिगंग-सिरगंग Cr. सञ्चान–चचान, विचान for the Shikra Hawk चर--सरइ a bird; चोखा-सोका rice in corrupt Gujarati; चीर्णपर्ण-शीर्णपर्ण-Azadirachta indica, the Neem tree Sansk. कीर, चिरि and Talegu ff or f for a Parrot appear to be allied forms. Crows and their Allies 15 has been hinted at there. The Jackdaw, no doubt, loves thieving, "still, he is not the champion sneakthief that his first cousin the Magpie is" (Our Bird Book, pp. 64-65). 5. Manu Samphità in its present editions reads ¹ at 12.63 in the same context as the Mahabharata and Brahma Purana, which is evi- dently a wrong reading of ffre. There is ample authority for this presumption, for we find Sayana Madhavācārya quoting Manu, 12, 63 with the reading of चीरोकाक in his commentary on the पराशर धर्मसंहिता publi- shed in the Bombay Sansk. Series, No. 59 (1888), where the learned editor has pointed out in a foot note at p. 254 of Vol. 2, Pt. 2 that two MSS. of the commentary have in the verse in question. It would therefore appear that the writer of the Bengal recension of the Maha- bharata substituted for ff which is also the reading in the . The Verse does not suffer in sense as both the jackbird and the green magpie are noted thieves. On the other hand, it is quite likely that both fufer and for belong to one or the other of the two birds. E. JAYS AND ROLLERS "The Jays are birds of bright plumage, the wing especially being marked with vivid blue. They inhabit woods, have harsh cries, are rather shy, and live on all kinds of food". Two varieties of the bird occur in the Himalayas ranging from 3,500 feet in winter to 8,000 feet in summer. The Black-throated Jay (13") has a black crested head, black wings closely barred with bright blue, vinous grey body and a blue tail barred with black. The Himalayan Jay (12") lacks the black head and crest of the former and is of a rich vinaceous fawn-colour all over including the head. except for a good bit of white both above and below the tail. Both are very noisy and live on fruits, insects, small mammals, birds and reptiles and other birds' eggs. During flight they often indulge, like the Rollers, in wing- flappings and contortions. Their cousin, the Siberian Jay, of the pine forests of Northern Furope and Asia is considered a lucky bird by the people of those parts (the Britannica, 11th Edn). The Rollers have a more plumage, their wings and tail consisting of various shades of blue, from pale turquoise to dark ultramarine, tinted in parts with green. They are, however, entirely insectivorous and also include mice, small reptiles, frogs and harmless snakes in their dietary, and are for this reason placed in the wee group of birds in and. Both the Jays and the Rollers were formerly placed 1. Verse 13 of ch. 44 of the Institutes of Visou (frefer) edited by Jujus Jolly (Calcutta, 1181) read ff in the same context. The original heading of fufe or Twould seem to have been corrupted through scribal error to ar in some copies of मनुसंहिता or विष्णुस्मृति and the error has been repeated and shortened to चीरी in यशवल्क्यस्मृति 5.215. 16 Birds in Sanskrit Literature with in the Crow family even by systematists but the latter have now been separated as a family under a different suborder. That Rollers were regarded as a kind of Jay is also clear from the fact that M. Williams renders their Sanskrit name, T, as "the Blue Jay". In India also both Jays and Rollers were looked upon as varieties of and the former were distinguished simp- ly as , for the Hindi named for the Black-throated Jay is appa- rently a corruption of वनचाष- वनचापड़ा बनसासरा–बनसरी ? The common Sanskrit name for a Roller is (V. L.), but as it is one of the most auspicious birds of India and one whose form god Siva loved to assume on occasion it has earned for itself several complimentary epithets. Some of these like graft and afters are from the list of attri- butes of god Śiva contained in the fragram section of the Siva Purana, 3-koti-rudra Samhità, ch. 35, 118. Epithets descriptive of the bird's plu- mage, voice and habits, though apparently set down as synonyms for are really applicable not to any particular species but to different species taken separately, while a third set of epithets emphasizes their lucky aspects as birds of augury. The following brief description of the three species of Roller found from Kashmir to Nepal would help to allocate the adjectives appropriate to every one of them. (1) The Kashmir Roller (12") has the whole head, neck and lower parts under wing-coverts and auxillaries pale blue, darkest and streaked with brilliant small-blue on the breast and throat; back rufous-brown; Its local name is rump blue; and tail bluish-green. The bill is black. 'Nila krosh" (नीलचाष, the same as नीलाङ्ग चाष) from the predominance of the blue colour in the bird's plumage not only on the wings and tail as in others but also on the head, neck and lower parts. It is confined to Kashmir and the North-West. (2) The Broad-billed Roller has a dark brown head tinged with olive (yellowish-brown); tail and wings black suffused with deep blue; the back and lower parts greenish-brown with the centre of chin, throat and fore- neck deep purple-blue. The bill is deep vermilion. It is a much quieter bird and of more crepuscular habits than the others. "All through the hotter hours of the day it may be seen perched quietly high up on the loftiest tree of that particular bit of forest, or on the topmost branch of a dead tree in a clearing. As it is motionless its head sunk into the puffed out feathers of its shoulder and breast, it seems to be fast asleep except for a harsh croak, uttered every quarter of an hour or so." But it is quite wide-awake all the time; cf. graft below. It is the m-or f- proper and therefore sacred to fire who occasionally loved to assume its form-see Mahabharata, 13. 15, 146. This Roller occurs in the foot hills of the Himalayas and the adjacent plains, and also in the hills and nearby plains of the West coast from Wynad southwards and in Ceylon. 1. Grierson's Kashmir Dictionary. Nila Kias in F.B.I. is incorrect. Crows and their Allies 17 (3) The Indian Roller (13") is a bird of the plains and fields and is commonly seen in the more thickly inhabited parts. It is bluish- green on the crown and nape and purplish red marked with broad creamy shaft-stripes on the throat and upper breast, fading into rufous-brown further down. The back is greenish-brown, and the remain- ing parts, including the tail and wings, consist of various shades of blue. The point to be noted is that there is no yellowish brown on the head. nor any blue on the throat or fore-neck. The bill is blackish brown. The Rollers, when at rest, appear to be rather sombre coloured and not at all conspicuous but when on the wing they give us a most "vivid display of colour". The courtship exhibitionism is much the same in all species but the Indian Roller is not only the noisiest but also the most demonstrative of all three. The male "indulges in a series of fantastic acrobatics, rocket- ing into the air, somersaulting and nose-diving to the accompaniment of harsh grating screams and with the brilliant plumage flashing in the sun" (Salim Ali). Now, since everyone f the above three is an auspicious bird (fr) and fulfils the requirements of augury, the names and epithets of all of them have been mixed up in the so-called synonyms for: (a) स्वर्णचूड, मणिकण्ठ, विशोक, स्वस्तिक, अपराजित, etc. in वसन्तराज (b) किकिदीवि, चित्रवाज, महायोगी, नीलाङ्ग, पुन्यदर्शन, etc. in कल्पद्रुकोश. (c) नीलकण्ठ, चलपुच्छ, माजल, राजविहङ्गम, किकी, etc. in M. W. (d) हेमतुण्ड, नीलग्रीव, etc. in the verse quoted at the end. The truly descriptive adjectives in the above lists are far (having variegated wings); नीलाङ्ग (blue-bodied), मणिकण्ठ, नीलकण्ठ or नीलग्रीव (blue- throated; cf. fres, in the same sense as the name of the Peacock of Pururavas in Vikramorvasiya, 5. 54 where for stands for 'a sapphire'); Ft (gold-headed, i.e., with a yellowish-brown head); gr (golden, i.e., red-billed); faffe (calling 'ki ki' aloud during a sportive flight, or calling, and shining beautifully on the wing); and (frequenting, or resi- dent in dry waterless areas). It will be seen that all these cannot be true of any single species of Roller and must be allocated to their respective owners. In a general way, after and for would seem to apply to all the three species but since the lower parts of the Kashmir Roller are blue throughout the first epithet would seem to be specific for it, particularly as far for any Roller does stand in some contrast to ar (see below). fors and its variants apply to the Kashmir and the Broad-billed varieties but not to the Indian Roller. The epithets re and clearly belong to the broad-Billed species and to no other. Lastly, fefefa (if it is really 1. f is also the common cock after its red Lappets. 2. कि कि इति शब्दं कुर्वन् दीव्यति क्रीडति. It appears that the names किकि and किकिदीवि are shared by (i) a noisy kingfisher which is a water bird and (ii] the Indian Roller 18 Birds in Sanskrit Literature be the Indian Roller, the most playful and one of these birds), can only noisy member of the series. # drier areas of the Punjab and Rajasthan. too must be the same as it occurs in the Talso enumerates this as one of the birds common in arid places (III. 6, p. 397). ag refers to the slow up and down movement of this Roller's tail every half minute or so when perched upon a branch or telegraph wire. The Indian Roller being the commonest, the epithet perhaps belongs to it. The remaining epithets are shared in common by all the species as birds of happy augury. Some of these like स्वस्तिक, महायोगी, and विशोक are also applied to the domes- tic Cock who by his morning crow is supposed to herald a prosperous farg, again, is descriptive of the body-colour of a Peacock, one of the Cranes and the Blue Heron; and is shared by the Peacock, the Magpie Robin, the white Wagtail and others. Finally, a few examples of the Roller in literature: The beautiful Broad-billed Roller with its deep vermilion bill would seem to be the bird dedicated to the deities, अग्नि and सोम: "अग्निषोमाभ्यां चाषान्” -Vaja. Samhită, 24.23. In the Rgveda asthmatic cough is transferred from the patient to either the किकिदीवि चाप, or to चाय and किकिदीवि birds both of which seem to delight in their raucous calls and would be glad of a further reinforcement: "साकं यक्ष्म प्र पत चाषेण किकिदीविना" 10. 97. 13 Here ffff is either a simple epithet of referring to its ki-ki cries (root-दीव)। a different bird as held by arrard and Griffith, the latter taking it for a Kingfisher. (Art. 41). The ease and surety with which a Roller catches an insect have ser- ved as an excellent simile: "पतङ्गं हि ग्रसेच्चायो यथा क्षुद्रं बुभुक्षितः तथा द्रोणोऽग्रसच्छूरो धृष्टकेतुं महाहवे" -Mahabharata, 7. 125, 39. The proverbial beauty of the Jay's wings, so well admired in Europe, has not been lost on Sanskrit poets too : "प्रेङखभूरि मयूख मेचकचयेरुन्मेष चावच्छेद- च्छाया संवलितैविवतिभिरिव प्रान्तेषु पर्यावता:'" -Málati-madhava, 6.5. which does not frequent water and has therefore been distinguisbed as माजल-मा+जल ? See Art. 41. The formation of is perhaps analogous to T for a steady and plucky variety of dog named in the Vedie Index of Names and Subjects, and a for a bat which does not descend to the ground, P. 1. The reference is to the glittering jewellery of the gaily dressed hetaerae seated on tall royal elephants moving in a procession. The elephants carried clanging bells as part Crows and their Allies "प्रेमरम्यमुभयोः समं दिशो: कामिनां यदिह चाषपिच्छ्वत् एकतस्तु न चकास्ति साध्वपि श्यामपृष्ठमिव बहिणश्छदम्" -Bála-Rāmāyaṇa, 5.15. The shining blue steel of an excellent sword has been compared with the deep blue of the Roller's wing: "षण्ढो नम्रे द्विषत्यप्यनमति परुषः पुष्टचाषच्छदश्रीः" Khadga-śatakam, 29; Kavya-mälä, Pt. 11. Recitation of the following eight names of the Roller, at the sight of one, is said to ensure not only the object of one's desire but also a good dinner. “अशोकरच, विशोकश्च, नन्दनः पुष्टिवर्धनः, हेमतुण्डो, मणिग्रीवः, स्वस्तिकश्चापराजितः अष्टौ चाषस्य नामानि चायं दृष्ट्वा तु यः पठेत् अर्थसिद्धिर्भवेत्तस्य मिष्टमन्नं वरानने" 19 शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि under चाय: But a visit to an aviary will not do the trick ! of their trappings. This picture is compared with the sporting and joyfully crying flights of a number of चाप birds the glorious beauty (छाया) of whose expanded (उम्मेषि) wings as they turn and roll in the air (frafafa:) exhibits rainbows as it were (ra कार्मुका इव). The cries of the birds match the clanging of the bells –झण झण शङ्कार of the preceding passage. 20 The crow family काकवंश Crow, choughs & Nutcrackers 1. The Raven द्रोण or बुद्धकाकः 1. 2. The Brown-necked Raven-2. रक्तद्रोणकाक 3. The Hooded Crow- नीलास्यकाक 4. The Jungle and carrion crow कृष्ण or वनुकाक, काकोत 5. The Rook-नशाक or नष्टकाक, सितनीलच काक 6. The House Crow--or भस्मच्छवि-काक, बायस 7. The Jackdaw-चौरिकाक, पढचम- 25745 8. The Choughs सुवर्णकाक 9. The Nutcrackers-for सारङ्गकाकः Birds in Sanskrit Literature Magpies Tree Pic कृशकूट Kashmir and Black- rumped Magpies- कालकूट 3. Red-billed and Yellow- 2. Broad billed billed Magpies पूर्णकूट Roller-हेमतुण्ड " or स्वर्णचूड-चाय 4. Green Magpie-fufer 3. Indian Roller चाय Jays वनचाप Rollers 1. Kashmir Roller- नीलामचाष

• The Rollers, though placed in a separate family by scientists, were regarded by the

ancients as allied to the jays and have therefore been included here. 2 TITS 1. The great majority of Tits are small sparrow-like birds four to six inches long, some with and others without a crest. All the species are very much alike in their habits and behaviour. Extremely active and sprightly, they spend much of their time on trees, clinging to twigs and flowering stems in a variety of acrobatic postures often hanging upside down like little bats, in search of their insect food. They also eat buds and small berries. The males have a cheerful, loud, and clear whistling song during the breeding season from spring t autumn. Most of the species occupy the outer Himalayas but the Grey and the Yellow-cheeked Tits are resident in the plains. The Grey Tit is bluish and black above and white below with a black neck and a broad black stripe running down from the throat to the abdomen and a white cheek-patch. The Yellow-cheeked species is a greenish and yellow bird with a pointed black crest and a black band (afe or efe) down the lower parts as in the Grey Tit. Both are of arboreal habits. 2. The only vernacular names available for any of these birds, other than in the Hill dialects of Assam, are (i) Sabzaroshan ('the light or charm of the green trees ) in Urdu and (ii) Räma-gangrá (राम: सुन्दरे, श्यामवर्णे + गुद्ध शब्दे- 'the beautiful voiced'?) in Bengali for the Indian Grey Tit. The first name is used by bird-fanciers in Central India and the second is noted in F.B.I. and this last would seem to agree in sense with Sanskrit fer (the little sweet voiced bird, बल्गु-मधुरभाषणे) which occurs only in its Pali form af in the Commentary on the Dhamma-pada edited by H.C. Nor- man, Vol. 3, p. 223. The Pali-English Dictionary (P.T.S. edition) renders the name as 'a small song-bird'. f also means a bat and prefer should be a small bat or a pipistrelle, and having regard to the behaviour of the little Tits of often hanging upside down described above it would seem that they are the safer of the Commentary. The expression पन्बहारे ओलंबता used for the खुद्द वगुलि by the commentator" refers to their penduline attitudes when engaged upon a search for insects 1. Since means both a little bat and a bat-like bird and as both these roost and nest in holes it is perhaps better to derive the name from T, a hole : cf. and for a bridle which goes into the hollow (, ) of the horse's mouth. Birds in Sanskrit Literature along the rough and broken roof of an open mountain cave. eft of the age list in a should be the same. 22 3. सद्बा ( Hindi, सट्टा, सटा or सटैला from सट सटा a crest ) is another Sanskrit bird-name which may well belong to a crested Tit the Yellow-cheeked Tit. The term also means a musical instrument, probably a child's whistle so named after the little bird's whistling call (cf. Hindi etet, a whistle). 4. If the equation, पट्टि बल्गुलो, of the विश्वलोचन-कोश refers to वस्गुलि as a bird it gives us a third name for such of the Tits as have either a tiara. i.e. an ornamented crest or a broad black band stretching from the neck to the abdomen, and these like the Grey and the Yellow-cheeked Tits would be पट्टिबगुलि For पट्टि in the above sense see पट्टि and उर पट्टिका under तल- सारिका, in M. W. and of also वक्त्रपट्टे तु तलिश तलसारकम्-अभि. चिन्तामणि हेमचन्द्र has श्यामाबल्गुली which has been illustrated by his commentator महेन्द्र with "श्यामेव (श्यामैव ?) लम्बते प्लक्षे" – 'the श्यामा is in a pendant attitude in the ficus infectoria tree. No lexicon equates TT with 'a bat' and the term, therefore, refers to the ef (bat-like birds), viz. the Tits. 5. The largest member of the Tit family is the eight inch long Sultan Tit of Nepal and Eastern Himalayas. The cock-bird is shining black with a beautiful brilliant yellow crest and deep yellow lower parts. It has a var- iety of shrill calls, the commonest being 'chip-tree-tree', and an occasion- al plaintive high-pitched 'pway, pway, pway'. Now a certain bird named स्वर्णशिव or स्वर्णचूल (v.1. सुवर्णचूल) figures in a story related in कथासरित्सागर, 10. 9 where a young prince playfully snatches away a musical instrument called far from his sister and she thereupon curses him to be immediately transformed into the bird, presumably because of a close similarity of the sound of the instrument with the bird's voice. M. Williams conjectures that the bird is probaly the Blue Jay or the Indian Roller because one of the names for it is e, but the voice of the Roller is anything but musi- cal. N.M. Penzer, on the other hand, identifies with the Hoopoe but the crest of this bird is practically of the same rufous-fawn colour as the head, neck and breast, and is also tipped black. As against this, the name clearly implies a sharp contrast with the colour of the adjacent parts, and it is sub- mitted that the Sultan Tit with its brilliant and entirely golden-yellow crest, worn jauntily on a shining black head, has a much better claim to the name. 6. We have therefore सट्वा and बल्गुली or क्षुद्र बल्गुलि as common names for the Tits as a group, श्यामावल्गुलि or बल्गुलि श्यामा for the dark coloured Grey Tit, and स्वर्णशिव or स्वर्णचूल for the beautiful Sultan Tit. 7. It is possible, as suggested in the article on Bulbuls (Art. 6), that Tits possessing white ear-coverts, e.g. the Grey Tit, the Black-Tits and other allied forms were regarded as little Bulbuls of the ff type. The identifications in this article should thus be regarded as tentative rather than conclusive. 1. सटुवा may be from सट+वत् contaminated by सटा or imitative of the bird's call 2. Means also "yellow orpiment' which is significant. 3. See Penzer's Ocean of Story, Vol. 5 foonote at p. 160. 3 PARROT-BILLS AND SUTHORAS 1. The striking feature common to this curious group of birds is their bill which resembles a parrot's. I have not been able to find a name. for one in Sanskrit but from the fact that some of them are known in Hindi as gater I am satisfied that they certainly had a name in Sanskrit though it has not been preserved in the lexicons that are extant. The name gater (Suthorà) is evidently derived from Sanskrit which is syno- nymous with शुरूवोटि (शुक, a parrot and नोटि, a bill), thus शुक्रतुण्ड-सुरु | ठोर -सुठोर + अ = सुठोरा, ठोर from तुण्ड meaning a beak in Hindi Certain plants are also known as and g, and I would not be surprised if at least one of these was also a name for the birds in question just as the words and fefgua mean both a particular plant and a parti- cular bird-the Racket-tailed Drongo and a parrot or cuckoo respectively- Arts. 15, 37 & 38. धन्वन्, कन्दली, रज्जुवाल, etc. are other names which have similar double meanings. 2. According to अनेकार्यसंग्रह of हेमचन्द्र and the विश्वप्रकाशकोश, "ब्रोटि" means a kind of bird, and it appears to me that owing to a misunder- standing of an older text which gave something like fethe compound name atfe was split up into and atfe, and each was taken for a kind of bird. Once this was done others followed in the wake and atfe by itself became a kind of bird. The Hindi name gater thus clearly points to qafe as 'a name for this group of birds, unless affe by itself is established as a specific name for a particular bird. That compound bird-names have occasionally been misunderstood and split up may be seen from the example of किकिदीवि mentioned by पेक्यूरि in his औणादिक पदार्णव :- "एके तु किकिदीवो तु नामनी द्वे न्यरूपयन्– Part 4, 168. Similarly the name - for the Neophron Vulture has been wrongly split up into (i) and ge in M. W. as discussed under Vulture No. 6, Art. 51. A mistake of this kind, once made, is copied and re-copied by subsequent compilers of lexicons and obtains a fictitious authority. fe is a kind of fish having a mouth resembling the bill of the Common Heron and this offers the strongest argument in support of the name rate for the Parrot-Bills and Suthoras, formed in the same way, while we have very probable synonyms in wer and as well. 1. Hindi Shabda Sagar सुठोरा शुक्रतुण्ड शुकनोटि. 4 NUTHATCHES 1. The Nuthatches of North and Central India are small birds, not over 6 inches long, and have similar habits. In colouration also all are blue-grey or bluish above, and different shades of chestnut below. They are birds of mango-topes and other trees and keep to tree-trunks or branches and feed on insects and worms and also nuts if available. They are more often heard than seen, and it is their sharp notes and the sound of hammering on the bark of a tree or on hard seeds or nuts which help to locate them. All have black-bills except the velvet-fronted Blue Nuthatch which has a coral-red bill. They are known as fireet or farê in Hindi, T परकी (the invisible Little Dove in Bengal) and सिध्यी फिप (the 'सिध्यी' bird) Assam, and I think they should be connected with some of the Sanskrit bird names like शिलीन्धी, कन्दली करक, कवक, कपोती or कपोतिका occurring as below :- in (1) "शिलीन्धं कदलीपुष्पे कवकत्रिपुटारूययोः शिलीन्धी विहगी" -हेमचन्द्र (2) "शिलीन्धं कदलीपुष्पे करकत्रिपुटारूययोः ( 3 ) - शिलीन्ध्रो विहगीभिदि" -विश्वप्रकाश "कन्दली मृगपक्षि विशेषयो:” – मेदिनी (4) "पारावत: कपोत: स्यात् कपोतो विगान्तरम्" -शाश्वतकोश. "कपोतः पारावते स्यात् कवकाव्यविहङ गमे"3–हेमचन्द्र, विश्वप्रकाश. (6) कपोत: स्यात्कलखे कबकाख्यविहङ गमे" (5) -विश्वलोचनकोश The following subsidiary equations should help in construing the above :- 2. कपोत as a homonyan in this synonymy means (i) (M.W. उणादि) and (ii) के ईषद् क्षुद्रो 1. फो and फिप in Hill dialects mean a bird' Cr Sanskrit फुक, a bird. The local names given above are from F.B.I. Dove or Pigeonकवते इति कपोतः वा पोतः पक्षिणावक: क्षुद्रपक्षी, a small bird. 3. The Nuthatch is called a कवक because when holding an to a tree-trunk, it resembles a mushroom jutting out from a tree in a similar position cf also कौति कवते कूवते वा कबाक:- erurgenfeqfer: 3.34, By giving these derivations I do not at all imply that they are correct. They are merely suggestive and given as mere possibilities. Nuthatches "गोमयच्छतिकामाहुदिलीरं च शिलीन्धकम्" -हारावली शिलीगण्डुपदी, a kind of worm हेमचन्द्र, अमर शिली स्तम्भशीर्ष - मेदिनी करक-पक्षिभेद -हेमचन्द्र कबक Mushroom-M. Williams. "कन्दलं त्रिषु उपरागे नवाङकुरे कलध्वनी, शिलीन्घ्रपुष्पे" मेदिनी "कपोतं अञ्जनेऽपि स्यात्" -विश्वप्रकाश 25 Now first being both 'a worm' and 'the top of a column' offers a reason- able derivation of firefit from the two different senses of the word fireft with root घृ 'to hold.' As a catcher of worms शिलीन्ध्र would be a bird, and as resting on or holding the top of a column शिलीन्धम_would be छवाम a mushroom. If the bird also is in the habit of holding on to the trunk (column) of a tree it could be properly called a शिलीन्ध and its small size would justify the form fशलीन्धी just as बिगी should mean a small birdi in addition to being the feminine of firge (any bird). 2. "कन्दली" means 'a new shoot' (प्रवाल ) which is often of a delicate shade of red and hence also 'a light red colour (उपराग). The propriety of this name for a particular bird should depend on these senses. The red colour of the bill (resembling a new shoot) of the Velvet-fronted Nuthatch, when it is resting face up against a tree-trunk- quite a common attitude for it. -with the body colour merging with the dark colour of the tree, would seem to justify the name कन्दली for it. The orange-red bill of सारिका (Indian Grackle) has been compared with कन्दली (a red shoot) by क्षेमेन्द्र :- श्यामाङ गी सारिकाऽब्रवीत् चम्पकस्यैव कलिकां विधाणा चञ्चकन्दलीम् । बृहत्कथामञ्जरी, 9-201 This seems to strengthen the above identification. “शिलीन्ध्रम्” is also the flower of the banana which has a maroon red calyx when open. The Cinnamon-bellied Nuthatch, which has deep chest-nut lower parts, can well claim the name for itself. For similar reasons कन्दली as a मृग would be the large Red Flying Squirrel. 3. "कलन्दक" according to M. Williams is either a squirrel or a bird, but in view of the equations : 1. This is according to the rule स्त्री स्यात्काचिन्मृणाल्यादिविवक्षापचये यदि –अमरकोश, स्त्रीलिङ्गशेष: verse 7. 3.5. 2. कन्दली and कदली are allermative readings in अभि चिन्तामणि, and शन्दरलाकर has बिलशायिनि कन्दली कदली हस्तायामा. See also वैजयन्ती कोश which includes कदली among animals that yield useful skins. These large squirrels live in holes in trees and also under- ground. They are of the पर्णमृगा: group as living on trees | बिलेशया: group as living in holes, 26 Birds in Sanskrit Literature "कन्दलं शिलीन्ध्रपुष्पे"- मेदिनी, and "कन्दली मृगपाक्षिविशेषयोः" - विश्वप्रकाश it would appear that कन्दलक and कन्दलीक (both with स्वायें कन्) became कलन्दक and f in Pali by metathesis, and both the latter like the former mean a kind of squirrel and a kind of bird. The bird is of course, the Nuthatch, and as for the squirrel it appears to be the Large Indian Squirrel (Sciurus indicus maximus) of the plains, which is maroon-red above and buff below, or the Large Red Flying Squirrel of Kashmir and Nepal which is chestnut above and pale below. They have a soft fur and are of a good size to yield a useful skin. It suggested that these are theft of the lexicons, and of these, probably the Large Indian Squirrel, gave the name of कलन्दक निवाप (v. 1. कालिन्दक निवाप) to a Buddhist Grove in बेलुवन where the life of a certain prince, sleeping under a tree and on the point of being bitten by a snake, was saved by the local sprite assuming the form of a squirrel and screaming a warning to him. That is definitely a squirrel is also proved by a little story in fafareas where one is described as frightening away its enemy by raising its puffed out tail. On the other hand, trustful of man as the Nuthatches are, it is equally probable that the fa derived its name from theft or birds. The resemblance of the bird's movements on a tree-trunk, including its ability to scuttle quickly down a tree-trunk head foremost, sideways or upside down along a branch, to those of a squirrel accounts, perhaps better still, for the name for the Nuthatch group as a whole. The voice of these birds is a 'chwit-chwit' or a sharp 'tsit' and as a musical instrument must have been a small soft-toned whistle for children named after the call of a Nuthatch. 4. Again, the कन्दगलक bird in the कन्दगलक जातक (v.l. कलन्तक in ललितविस्तर) is no other than the or bird, viz. the Nuthatch, the Chestnut-bellied or the Cinnamon-bellied variety. It is necessary to state, before setting out the story, that Nuthatches resemble Wood- peckers in the way they hunt and creep all over the trunks and bran- ches of trees for insects, that they have hard-pointed bills with which they bore holes in the hardest of nuts for their contents, and that they breed in natural holes in trees, and one of them, the Velvet-fronted Nuthatch, selects a nest-hole deserted by a Barbet or a Woodpecker or enlarges a small natural crevice in a tree with its bill. The story is that a Woodpecker (रुख कोट्ठक सकुन i.e. वृक्षकुट्टक or काष्ठकूट) living in खदिरवन and a were friends and the latter happened to pay a friendly visit to the former. He was entertained with plenty of succulent and soft worms so that he was tempted to shift permanently from his soft-wooded forest to the Catechu-forest. The Woodpecker advised 1. VII. ओपम्म कथा No. 3. 2. Forest of catechu trees. Nuthatches 27 him not to, for accustomed as he was to work upon soft-wood only, he could not bore into the hard Catechu wood for insects, but he would not listen, and actually broke his bill and neck at the first attempt against a Catechu tree-trunk and died. This interesting story leaves hardly any doubt as to the identity of and supports the identification of with a Nuthatch. 5. Synonymy No. 4, taken by itself, would appear to mean that ad or Pigeon is a kind of or Dove, and a (Dove) is a differ- ent bird. In other words, it is a larger category which includes both Pigeon and Dove as varieties within itself. Such an interpretation. seems reasonable enough but the next two equations which run almost parallel to the first show that the latter half of the first, viz. "कपोतो विहगा- न्तरम्" actually refers not to कपोत in the sense of a Dove but to कवक (-) as a different bird altogether. We have also seen that or is the same as the small bird known as firefrat. It follows therefore, that fat is also known by the name of including the feminine forrns कपोती or कपोतिका which would be a diminutive of कपोत and therefore comparable with the name feet as fagt, a little bird.¹ The aptness of the name of becomes apparent when we recall the blue-grey of the upper parts of all Nuthatches, resembling the colour of the Blue Rock Pigeon. Cf. for collyrium. 6. Lastly attention may be invited to the vernacular names given above which do seem to have some connection with Sanskrit fast-particularly the name fat which is perhaps a corruption of it. fere is also an abbreviation of ferrat (fert). The faf birds drawing out worms from the barks of trees referred to by भवभूति in :- “शाखापस्किरमाणविष्किरमुखव्याकृष्टकीटत्वच: " उत्तररामचरितम्, 2.9. are either Nuthatches or Woodpeckers. They have been called fafc² as they dig out their insect-food from the bark or soft rotten wood of various trees like the common fowl on the ground. The alternative reading of छाया for शाखा is incorrect and goes ill with 'त्वचा' (bark). 1. Campare the Bengali name of 'the invisible dove for a Nuthatch quoted above. 2. From fir with to scatter, cleave, split, etc.-M. W. विकीर्य भक्षयन्त्येते यस्मात्तस्मादि विष्किराः - भावप्रकाश, मासवर्ग. 5 LAUGHING THRUSHES & BABBLERS A. BIRDS EQUAL IN SIZE TO OR LARGER THAN THE COMMOM MYNA. 1. The members of this group have powerful legs and feet and short roun- ded wings which means that they are not good fliers. They are mainly terrestrial in their habits and feed on the ground on berries and insects. for which they turn up leaves and other rubbish. Their gregarious and noisy habits have secured for them a place among the well-known birds of augury. Some of the Babblers are also birds of the plains. The White- Crested Laughing Thrushes indulge every few minutes "in an outburst of cackling and laughing calls in which each member tries to out-shout the rest.' t." Similarly the Rufous-necked laughing Thrushes burst "every now and then into a perfect babel of shrieks, laughs and expostulations" and the noisiness of the Common and Jungle Babblers of the plains is a matter of common knowledge. In short, they "are all one blood." 2. Properly speaking they belong to the "peckers" or age class and appear to be the वानकार ! (वाचां करोति, noisy or cacophonous) of and T of g but as they also scrape the ground with the bill and sometimes with the feet in search of food (Jerdon) they have been placed in the faf class in gge under the name of Fearg (very noisy). Local names of these birds often emphasize their noisy character e.g. the Himalayan White-Crested Laughing Thrush is far in Hindi (cf. r'), and Nepali or Hindi farge for the Rufous-necked and Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler is evidently the same as कुरुबाहू, for भूयस् is भिय्यो or भिव्य in Pali and कुरो is the 11. CC. बाग्यकार (बानकार - गेयकार, one who recites) in मानसोल्लास Vol. 2. 105 and Hindi for garrulity. 2. "फा शब्दकारी फाकारो" where फा (निरोक्तो शाश्वत) refers to the harsh calls and noisy nature of the birds and is in contrast with the sense of or in names like कलरव, मधुक etc. अष्टाङ्गस ग्रह 1.7 gives पार्कार while Paradkar's edition of अष्टाङ्गहृदय (N. Sagar, 1999) quotes an alternative reading of er in a foot-note at p. 95, both giving the same sense, 29 Laughing Thrushes and Babblers same as a (harsh voice). Both these occur in Nepal where the influence of Pali and Buddhism was predominant in ancient times. वाक्कार, कुरवक, and are therefore, common Sanskrit names for these noisy birds. It may be added that कुरुबाहुक is a better reading in मुश्रुत than कुरवाहक though both mean the same thing. M. Williams gives the former as कुरुबाहु and डल्हणाचार्य renders it as कुस्कुरुक, noisy. The birds of the following extract should be the Himala- yan White-Crested, the Indian Black-gorgeted, the Indian Necklaced, and the White-throated, Laughing Thrushes of the Western Himalayas ranging between 2,000 and 5,000 ft. and common in the foot-hills of the Punjab, Garhwal, Nepal, etc. All these are allied forms and have similar habits. Some four or five birds get on the path or open space and begin to dance with lowered wings and spreading their tails, threading in and out amongst themselves in the most complicated figures while the rest of the mob watches and applauds from every branch of the surrounding bushes or trees in the heartiest and jolliest fashion (Stray Feathers, 6,286, and S. Baker in F.B.I.):- "वाणीवादाञ्छुकां व सारिकान् भृङ्गराजकान्"- M. Bh. 13,54,10 The name arfare would seem to be connected with arft, sound of a hand-drum, वाणिनी, a dancer, वाण्यः a choir of musicians, and are sounding or playing a musical instrument; cf. frare clapping the hands in approbation. Our birds certainly dance, sing and applaud one another. The Red-headed Laughing Thrush of Nepal is neither noisy nor gregarious and some of its louder notes are quite mellow and sweet. It should be the bird of a Himalayan hermitage described in g, Ch. 118. This Thrush has a chestnut head and the adjective. signifies the same colour in the plumage of the Brahminy Kite described as "r" (Art. 52-E). F 3. Names for members of the Starling group and for the Common, the Large Grey, and the Jungle Babblers (with yellow feet and, therefore, पीतपादा like the सारिका or Myna) have been mixed up in कल्पद्रुकोश, राजनिघंटु and other lexicons. The reason for this seems to be their apparent similarity to the common Myna in size, noisiness and the habit of feeding on the ground. That this confusion prevails in the popular mind as well may be seen from the fact that the Bengal Jungle Babbler is known as पंगामना or फंगा in Hindi and the हिन्दीशब्दसागर defines पेंगिया मंना, and , names for the Bengal Jungle Babbler and the Large 1. afore (the Hornbill) is also a very noisy bird and applies the epithet कुरुबाहु i.e. very noisy to it. बृहत्संहिता (874) calls the noisy Magpies as कुरवक (करवक in M.W.) 2. These Hindi names are from Sanskrit roots पिज्ज - पिजि - पिङ्ग and गुड - गङ्गय to make a sound, all, more or less, of onomatopoetic origin. Another name for the fer is मदन सारिका which is shortened to मदना in Prakrit and this last again becomes मयना-मेना in Hindi. 30 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Grey Babbler, "as a bird of the Myna tribe, commonly known as the Seven Brothers" (cf. the popular name 'Seven Sisters' for them). The Large Grey Babbler is also in Hindi and the Jungle Babbler is in Marathi, both these names going back to भूसारिका of राजनिघंटु :- भूसारिका - भूमदना – भुई मैना – मैना ( H. मदना - मयना मैना ) fr 4. Names like गोराटी, गोकिराटी or गोकिराटिका have again been regarded as synonymous with सारिका by हेमचन्द्र and others, but they are perhaps easy to distinguish and allocate between their respective owners. The Common Myna is noisy in day-time only when excited or quarrelling with others of its kind, but when roosting in the evening on trees in large numbers as usual they are very noisy and "the fuss and com- motion accompanied by endless harsh chattering must be seen and heard to be appreciated" (F.B.I.). The name ret (tarfa) is, therefore, perfectly true of it and equally so of the Babblers. The names for and गोकिराटिका, however, seem to have a different derivation, गवि भूमौ किर इव refer a bird that moves (and works) on the ground like a pig, and this admirably describes the habit of the Babblers which turn up dead leaves and refuse for insects, berries, etc. Wilson gives this derivation, and perhaps correctly. Curiously enough the Tamil name for some Babblers like the Large Grey Babbler is fefe 'the Pig-bird", which is an exact equivalent of inforget. In the alternative, the name may be derived from गो+किराती, गवि भूमौ वाचि वा किराती इव i.e. working on the ground or talking like women of the fr tribe living in the forests. The occupation of digging out medicinal roots has also been attributed to fr girls: "कैरातिका कुमारिका सका खनति भेषजम्" अथर्ववेद, 10.4.14. The language of the Kiratas was nothing better than the chatter of these birds to the Indo-Aryans and this may well have been an additional reason for the name गोकिराती as suggested above. It was perhaps subsequently changed, under the influence of Prakrit, to ft. The epithets कुत्सिताङ्गी and कश्मलाङ्गी (for सारिका) in राजनिषण्टु refers to the dirty- grey, and untidy plumage of these Babblers. (hysterically noisy; cf. 5. Lastly, gifer ) is one of the names in the g synonym for the Myna-group and corresponds Hindi गँगइ (गुरु अव्यक्ते शब्दे to shout) and पंगा (पिञ्ज् अव्यक्ते शब्दे), and Gujarati [भड़भड़ियां (भण to call) for the Common and Jungle Babblers. gifs must therefore refer to these birds who start shouting hysterically at the slightest provo- cation. S. Baker³ devotes a whole paragraph to a description of the noisy 1. Per Jerdon in "The Birds of India". 2. Cf., Prakrit 3. F.B.I. 2nd Edition Vol. I. 192. , for the Malkohas, Art. 37-B. Laughing Thrushes and Babblers 31 habits of the Seven Sisters. For a remotely possible reference to these birds. as in the Rg Veda see Art. 13. 6. मणितुण्ड (red-billed; cf. मणितारक, the Sarus, whose eyes are red, Art.62) is a familiar bird in the garden of Indra in the Himalayas: "नानावर्णैश्च शकुन: नानारत्नतनूरुहै. सुवर्णपुष्पैश्चानेकैः मणितुण्डैद्विजातिभिः” वायुपुराण, 39, 18. It probably refers to the beautiful and sweet-voiced Coral-billed Scimitar Babbler which does not shun observation, unless the Grey-winged Black- bird with a red bill is intended. The red-billed Black Bulbul cannot be meant as it has very harsh notes and does not deserve a place with the beautiful and multicoloured (ar) little gems of the bird-world- the Sun-birds, Art. 30. It is however possible that the name forve as a homonym in the plural refers to both the above Babbler and the Black-bird. B. BIRDS OF THE SIZE OF A SPARROW 1. Coming to the smaller members of the family there is, first, the widely distributed Iora¹ of the road-side trees, groves and gardens of the plains and lower hills, wandering up to the outer Himalayas. It is black and greenish-yellow above and deep yellow beneath, duller and greenish below the breast. The wings have two white bars. The male has a variety of pleasant and powerful whistling notes some of which resemble the (soo) and others the ft (see)call, uttered as a single or multiple whistle, up to eight notes in succession. It has besides a long drawn wee-e-e-e-tu or see-e-e-e-u- whistle. It is mentioned as a bird of augury under the name or सूकरिका (सू इति शब्दं करोति) in बृहत्संहिता, 85.37; 87.9 where it is described as a small Sparrow-like bird ("जात्या चटिका च सूकरिका"). वसन्तराज also mentions it at 4.51. Hindi alfam for the bird is from Prakrit gfam for Sans. , incorrectly rendered as the मैना ( starling ) in पा० स०, महण्णवो. शुकिका is thus another name for the Iora. But the most beautiful and fully appropriate names for it are and aft, descriptive of its sweet whistling notes, given in देशी नाममाला where महओ (मधुक: मधुना मधुरं वा कायति ) is defined as "श्रीबदाख्यः पक्षी, थीः इति वदति वाश्यते". 2. The Black-headed Sibia of Nepal has a "Loud" ringing call Tit- teree, titteree, tuceyo" and its local name for (fara?) is clearly reminiscent of stre, the titteree note being the st call. If so it would be simply श्रीवद and the far swecter Tora, मधुक श्रीवद. 2 1. Probably from Latin Io-a cry of joy. 2. For other birds bearing the name si sec Art. 10, 13. 32 3. The beautiful Red-billed Liothrix of Nepal has an excellent song during the breeding season and is a favourite cage bird for its song and beauty. Its Nepali name recorded in F. B. I. is नंबुरा ( नन्द चिड़ा from नन्दि , a pleasing or excellent Sparrow?). On the other hand the foreg bird of an is almost certainly the Liothrix (cf. for a bright fire):--- "रोचिष्णवो नाम पतविणोऽन्ये दीप्ताग्निवर्णोज्ज्वलितैरिवास्यैः । भ्रमन्ति दृष्टीर्वपुषाऽक्षिपन्तः स्वनैः शुभैरप्सरसो हरन्तः ॥" Birds in Sanskrit Literature सौन्दरनन्द, 10,31. This verse is from a description of Himalayan scenery, apparently some- where in Nepal, an important centre of Buddhism, and the brief pen-picture of the poet sufficiently declares the bird's identity. The verse may be freely translated: "The f birds with their fiery-red aspect and bills, song sweeter than the nymphs', and so attractive to look at, are sporting here and there." The Liothrix has a brilliant orange-red bill and bright orange-yellow throat and breast, and to quote Whistler, "It is a very lively cheerful little bird. going about in parties. In the breeding season the cock has a delightful song of some variety and compass." I need not add a word more, for no other bird matches the beautiful description of अश्वघोष. 4. The same author portrays another beautiful bird in the following verse- मनः शिलाभैवंदनविहङ्गा यत्राक्षिभिः स्फाटिकसन्निभैश्च । शादैश्च (VL श्यावैच) पक्षरतिलोहितान्तैः माञ्जिष्ठकरधंसितैश्च पाद: ।। Ibid. 10.28 The Silver-cared Mesia², closely allied to the Liothrix described above, makes the nearest approach to the poet's description. The Cock-bird's golden-yellow forehead, orange-yellow chin and throat, and yellow-ochre bill, red-brown iris, wing-coverts edged with green, wings brown edged with crimson, crimson upper and lower tail coverts, the former showing up close to the folded wing-tips, and legs and feet fleshy-yellow, answer fully to the colour pattern described in the above verse. The only apparent. difficulty is as regards the colour of the eyes which are said to resemble enfe, ordinarily supposed to be colourless and transparent, but reddish and dark-coloured rock-crystals described as अशोकपल्लवच्छाय, लोहिताकार and कृष्ण were also known varieties of स्फटिक (शब्दकल्पद्रुम quoting युक्तिकल्पतरु) 50 that it is not incorrect to describe the red-brown eyes of the bird as 1. From Greek leios, 'smooth' and thrix, 'hair', after the sleek plumage of the bird. 2. Greek mesos, 'middle'? Laughing Thrushes and Babblers 33 esfe afww. It has clear loud whistling notes and a party of these pretty little birds "form a wonderful spectacle of bright colour in front of heavy green bushes and undergrowth" (S. Baker in F. B. I.). Like its cousin, the Liothrix, it is also a favourite cage-bird of North India. 5. The last bird of the group to have a Sanskrit name is the Chloropsis¹, known as (fr. fa, green) in Hindi. Corresponding Sanskrit names. पक्षगुप्त and पत्रगुप्त which clearly imply that the bird is effectively camouflaged or rendered invisible in the foliage as the colour of their plumage merges with that of the trees in which they live. This is perfectly true of the Chloropsis. "The green Bulbul (i.e., the Chloropsis) is a bird of talent and it is a wag. It mocks a King-Crow, now a Sparrow-Hawk and now a Sun-bird. You stare into the tree and see none of them..... Not till he flits across to another tree will you find out who has been fooling you. For this reason few even of those who take an interest in birds know how very common the Green Bulbul really is". This reminds one of what Wordsworth has said about the Cuckoo in England. "No bird but an invisible thing, A Voice, a Mystery." The पक्षगुप्त of महाव्युत्पत्ति, Section 213 and the auspicious पत्रगुप्त of ललित- frer, Ch. 5, are, therefore, no other than the golden-fronted and the Orange-bellied Chloropsis both of which occur in the outer Himalayas. It is also interesting to note that the Green Finch which invariably nests in the trees has been called 'brother of the leaves'. For a possible reference to these birds as gfar: in the are see Art. 34. 1. Gr. chloros, light green; opis, appearance. 2. EHA in the Common Birds of Bombay. 3. "Adventures in Woodcraft," p. 68 6 BULBULS 1. The Bulbuls constitute a large and widely distributed family of small birds, and every part of India claims at least a few varieties as familiar deni- zens of towns, gardens, or the forest. They are arboreal by habit, keeping to the trees and bushes, and are fairly bold. Having short, weak legs they do not often descend to the ground. They have pleasant notes and are "extremely cheerful birds, always in an optimistic frame of mind and any garden is the richer for their lively, restless presence and constant gay notes". Sanskrit names are available for three distinct groups of Bulbuls common in North India, viz.: (i) the dark-grey and black-headed Red-vented Bulbuls; (ii) those with contrasting colours about the region of the ear, e.g. the White-cheeked, the White-eared, and the Red-whiskered Bulbuls, all of a grey-brown colour; and (iii) the Black Bulbul with noisy and discordant notes. The following lexical information is available about these birds:- (1) "पेचस्तु मेचको 'ज्ञेयो पुच्छान्तर्भागलोहितः”–धन्वन्तरिनिघण्टु; (2) "प्रथ गोवत्सा रक्तवर्णका पर्यटका कणिकिका रक्ता लट्वाऽपरा च सा पुच्छाधः पीतवर्णाऽथ फेञ्च: पोटियक: पुनः श्रीकर्णो नीलचटक इत्यादयः"* -कल्पद्रुकोश (3) "कृष्णचूड: कृमिरिपुः वुल्वुलो नीलपिङ्गलः–पञ्चतत्त्वप्रकाश Of the above names of mentions alone but furnishes an additional name for the black-headed and black-crested Bulbuls taken together (arre charcoal, hence 'of a dark or black colour'; 1. is descriptive of the generally dark colour of the plumage of these birds. 2. Subject to the alternative readings of and af for कणिकिका every name in this list stands for a particular bird or insect in वसन्तराज. and 3. tef is descriptive of the generally 'brown' body-plumage of the black- headed or black-crested Bulbuls. Persian 'Bulbul' has been Sanskritized into er! 4. In the Marathi notes on चरकसंहिता (नि. सागर प्रेस. 1922) अङ्गारवूडक has been correctly rendered as Bulbul. Bulbuls चूडा crest, top or head). सुश्रुतसंहिता also mentions the सट्वा' and the बृहत्संहिता has and which last is not a bird but an insect and the name has been listed in by mistake. To my knowledge is the only major work on augury which mentions all the bird and insect- names listed in the above extract from. It s really a mixed list for Bulbuls, other birds and a couple of noisy insects, and I believe that the author of g has drawn a good deal upon for compiling his long list of birds. The above names occur in वसन्तराज, 8. 46-52 (pp. 247-250). 2. The commonest Bulbuls of North India, viz., the Central Indian. and the Bengal Red-vented Bulbuls were probably the first recipients of the now popular name of 'Bulbul' at the hands of the Muslims who, wanting to find an Indian substitute for their favourite Bulbul, the Persian Nightin- gale, immortalized in song by great pocts like Hafiz and others, chose these cheerful birds for the compliment. The name has stuck so well that the people have almost forgotten their old Hindi name, afer ("black- headed', the same as अङ्गारचूडक of चरक, and its later equivalent, कृष्णचूड of ). It is worth noting that the F.B.I. also records 'rg' as a Hindi name against the above named Red-vented Bulbuls and no others. 35 3. The author of g has given either his own emendations or alternative readings of गोवत्सा, कणिकिका, and पर्वण्टिका for गोवत्सक, कणियक, and पर्यान्दिका respectively of वसन्तराज where रला and कर्णियक are mentioned together:---- "शशस्तौ रलाकणियकौ च वामौ सवलगुला चर्मचटौ प्रयाणे" – 1.8.47. (see If for like is also some noisy insect, as there is reason to believe, ff also will have to be excluded from the bird-list of last paragraph). The name corresponds to Hindi (wearing an ear-ornament, probably by association with fura, the name of a beautiful Apsară) which has been incorrectly recorded as 'Kandghara' and 'Kangdhara' in F.B.I. against the White-checked and White-eared Bulbuls through a phonetic error. Similarly Hindi for the Bengal Red-whiskered Bulbul is from Sanskrit fer which is common to several plants including Nerium odorum, having beautiful flowers worn by women in their ears for ornament and hence the name (cf. कणिका an ear ornament and also the name of a certain अप्सरा). कर्णिकार is in Prakrit and in Hindi so that the name for the Red- whiskered Bulbul is fully significant. 1. The name as a homonym has been applied to several birds e.g., (i) fr. 'a curl of hair on the forehead' it is the White-checked Bulbul as explained later on; (ii) 'a dancing boy', fr. 'a dancing girl'. it is the Fan-tail Flycatcher. Art. 11. and in the same sense (iii) the Short-toed Lark, Art. 27. Birds in Sanskrit Literature 4. It is clear from the first two synonymies given in para. I that (v. 1. फेन्च ?) and गोवत्सा (M.W. and वसन्तराज have perhaps the more correct form, गोवत्सक) refer to Bulbuls with red under-tail coverts, and लद्वा (लट्व- a curl on the forehead) is the White-cheeked Bulbul which alone has a long and pointed crest curling forward and yellow under-tail coverts (पुच्छाघ: पीतवर्णा). It will thus seen that चक्रदत on चरक and डल्हणाचार्य on सुश्रुत have erred in rendering लट्वा as the फेञ्चाक or फेजातक described by them as having a red patch under the tail (rym:). On the other hand, कल्पको rightly differentiates गोवत्सा (v.]. गोवत्सक), the Red vented, from, the yellow-vented White-checked Bulbul, and by extension the latter term would include the crestless but yellow-vented White-eared Bulbul as well. The terms, , (in M.W. and in the foot-note in, should be a w.r. of this), to be allied forms which according to by , and a seem and , supported aft, denote the Red-vented Bulbuls. Now and are two different birds according to , and they should therefore bei two different species of Bulbul with red under the tail, and these are (i) the familiar sub-crested forms, the 'Central Indian' and 'Bengal' Red- vented Bulbuls, and (ii) the much smarter looking and fully crested 'Bengal' and Southern' Whiskered Bulbuls. With these preliminary observations I proceed to allocate the above names, together with the pretty name gods of the Ramayana amongst the commoner Bulbuls of North India, the name are being of course a common name for all of them. in M.W. is a graphical error. 36 5. (1) The Bengal and Central Indian Red-vented Bulbuls are the पेच and फेन्च of the lexicons and फेञ्चाक and फेब्जातक of the com- mentaries on चरक and सुश्रुत (2) The White-checked, the White-eared, and the Red-whi- skered Bulbuls should share the name as they all have beautiful ears, as it were ("श्री: शोभा कर्णे यस्य श्वेतस्य कृष्णसन्निकर्षे शोभाधिक्यात्तथात्वम्" शब्दस्तोममहानिधि ). This name may also refer to the white-cheeked Grey Tit which looks like a miniature Bulbul-Art. 2. The Red-whiskered Bulbul would seem to claim the name gerade for itself in a special sense: "विनिष्पतद्भिः शतशश्चितैः पुष्पावतंसकैः", रामायण 5.15.7. 1. These appear to be Sansk. adaptations from names like 'Phaki-pho', 'Chinchiok- pho' or 'Chichiam' used by the Hill-tribes of outer Himalayas, e.g. for Bulbuls Nos. 386. 394 and 397 in F.B.I. The forms पेवक (पेच with स्वार्थक) and पेञ्चक (the same as E) have occurred in literature also; see the last paragraph of this article. 2. This Bulbul has the "hinder parts of cheeks and ear-coverts white surrounded with black; a tuft of crimson-scarlet feathers under the eye and extending over the lower car- coverts" (F.B. I. 2nd Edn.). It is therefore a Red and white -cared Bulbul rather than a Red-whiskered one. Bulbuls The name refers to a beautiful (fra) bird which is wearing as it were pair of floral ear-tops, and this Bulbul with what looks like a spray of red and white petals of Nerium odorum, the furre (Hindi), stuck in front of the ear answers. best to this pretty name which also agrees very well with Hindi for it. The following parallels for genadas (wearing a floral ornament in the ear) should prove interesting: "श्रमी शिरीषप्ररावावतंसाः"रघुवंश, 16.61 “कर्णावसक्तकुसुममञ्जरी" - कादम्बरी, P. 230 “रामदामोदरी... वन्यपुष्पावतंसकौ"ब्रह्मवं. पुराण, 184.53. 37 The Red-whiskered Bulbul, as already stated, is a much smarter looking bird than the common Red-vented variety and this is not merely because it wears a beautiful floral orna- ment in its cars but chiefly because it has a stylish, upright and pointed crest and a broad, dark band across the almost white breast more or less broken in the centre. It is this sprightly and trim appearance of the bird that has won for it the addi- tional Hindi name of far (the Soldier-Bulbul). Besides it shares the crimson patch under the tail with its cou- sins. The गोवत्सक of बसन्तराज, defined under the name of गोवत्सा in कल्पद्रु is this bird. The etymology and the propriety of the name is not at all apparent though a suggestion or two may be risked with, however, hardly any chance of probability: गवि भूमो वत्स इव - (a) like a toddler on the ground', in reference to the weak legs of the bird; (i) (ii)'hair', 'chest'-after the divided dark-brown band appearing to descend from the neck like pendent locks of hair falling on the breast¹; (iii) गवि पृथिव्यां वत्स इब-after the Vedic singer वत्स who success- fully passed through a fire-ordeal to establish his honourable Brahmanic parentage. This vain and confi- dent looking Bulbul also with its sweet and cheerful notes remains unscathed despite fire (the red patch) under its tail. Te the sage is now in heaven but. the bird acting his part on earth is still with us. See Manusmrti, 8.166 and पञ्चविशब्राह्मण, 14.6.6. (3) लट्या from लट्ब a curl on the forehead' is specific firstly for the White-cheeked Bulbul with a yellow vent as defined in and secondly, by extension for the White-eared Bul- bul, also with a yellow seat. The Black-crested Yellow Bulbul 1. Cr. श्रीवत्स, the tuft of lair on the chest of विष्णु, 38 Birds in Sanskrit Literature too, having a long crest and bright yellow lower parts, should share this name. (4) The Himalayan Black Bulbul (10") is distinctly larger than the common Red-vented Bulbuls (8"). It has orange-red bill and feet, a decidedly forked tail and loud discordant notes, and as it keeps to the tree-tops is frequently mistaken for a Drongo". It "goes about regularly in flocks all through the winter,....and they have a curious follow my leader style when flying from one tree to another. It is a very bold bird....but it is naturally restless.... (and) soon flits away out of sight" (F.B.I. 2nd Edn.) This Black Bulbul should thus be the पण्टिका (परि with अटू ? the wanderer v.1. पर्यादिका in वसन्तराज 8.2.46). The name has been incorrectly rendered as a Drongo (भुजङ्ग) in the commentary on वसन्तराज where फेण्ट for the Drongo has not been explained at all (Art. 15). The has apparently amended if into wife and the name fully. suits the wandering habit of this Bulbul. Its harsh notes are also quite useful for purposes of augury. Its names in Hindi are दुल ( (दु:कल, 'harsh-voiced) and बनवकरा (wild goat) after its wandering habit and harsh call-notes. 6. Finally, a few words about रला and कर्णियक of वसन्तराज and कणिकिका of erge. It has already been suggested above that the latter has taken all these names from the former but in doing so the author has modified गोवत्सक and कर्णियक into गोवत्सा and कणिकिका probably under a mistaken belief that the terms were synonymous and were common to a female calf (cut- ff 'a heifer') and a particular bird or birds. The fermentions Twith at 85.37 and again at 87.6.gg is egt, the common 'mole' and er is defined as follows: “कलहकारिका च रला । भृङ्गारवच्च विरुवति निशि भूमौ द्वघङ्ग लशरीरा ॥” ibid., 87.6. It is thus a kind of ground insect, a little over an inch long, and noisy like a cricket at night. This description, I venture to suggest, refers to the Mole- Cricket of the genus Gryllotalpa or Scapteriscus which is about the same. length and is very noisy at night in wet ground. who must have had the far before him when he compiled his work on augury, seems to have added one more noisy insect, the fore (deafen- ing, fr. fr piercing or afar fa) to his list of creatures that are noisy in the evening, for the science of augury must include omens for journeys begun at the close of day or at night. The half verse quoted in para. 3 above also includes, in addition to comfort, 1. The White-bellied and the Bronzed Drongos of North India are under 9 inches and therefore smaller than the Black Bulbul. The Commentator of would seem to have made the same mistake as pointed outs a few line lower down. Bulbuls 39 be the re, either the Flying Fox or the Stone Plover bird, both noisy at night, and i, a bat. The great majority of birds have diurnal habits and consequently for, placed as it is with and other nocturnal animals, should some other insect, probably the Cicada fly (also faeft in Sansk.) noted for the prolonged shrill notes of the male. It is generally heard till late in the evening and often at night during the summer; cf. ggfa for insects that may accidentally enter a person's ear and make a buzzing noise inside. Both ar and forfer are therefore out of place in the bird-list of erger. It is also interesting to note that the commentator of does not explain fort and contents himself with the remark that they are known in other parts of the country (परदेशप्रसिद्धी) 7. It may be noted that the little Bulbul has also contributed something to princely vanity as its bright red under-tail coverts were used to embellish royal jewellery and to set off the neck-bands of riding and polo ponies made from white beads: The Black Bulbul: पष्टिका “पेचकापिच्छसंयुक्तं बाहुसन्धिविभूषणम् । सुवर्णोपरि विन्यस्तं नानारत्नविराजितम् ॥" मानसोल्लास, 2, p. 93. "पेञ्चाकपुच्छपिच्छेच लोहित जता भृशम् । शङ्खजैर्मणिभिवृत्तः क्वणत्कनकशृङ्खलैः॥ - Ibid. 2, p. 221. अङ्गारचूडक BULBULS WITH A BLACK HEAD OR CREST Common Red-Vented Bulbuls of North India: पेच, फेञ्च, फेचाक, फेजातक with a long crest and yellow under the tail: लट्वा Bulbuls with a white or white and red patch in the ear-reg श्रीकर्ण T with a pointed crest, red under the tail, and a white and red cheek - patch The Red whiskered Bulbul: गोबत्सक, पुष्पावतंसक, 7 TREE-CREEPERS Tree-creepers are inconspicuous grey-brown birds of the size of a common Sparrow. They are wholly insectivorous and spend their entire life hunting for insects on the trunks of the larger trees, working in zigzags up the bole "rather like a jerky brown mouse". They never perch on the twigs and may frequently be seen working along the under-side of a bough with their backs parallel to the ground. After working in this manner at one tree, from the lower bole upwards, they fly from the top of one trunk down to the lower part of another. They are resident birds of the Himalayan forests but come down to the nearby plains in winter. An allied form seeks its food in a similar way from perpendicular rock-faces, boulders, etc. and it is for this reason named the Wall-Creeper. This is a foreign bird and visits India during the t winter. Sanskrit firge, means 'a little mouse', 'a kind of bird' (i.e. fug 'a mouse-bird'), and a kind of tree, and from the fact that the Tree-creeper is known as aer, or Mouse-bird in Assam there is hardly any doubt that the name faz (e) refers to this particular bird. The Wrens, with similar mouse-like habits on the ground, also share the name. A particular bird named (from tur, a lizard, with arm, and there- fore meaning 'a little lizard') is mentioned in rere and it is most probably this bird, for what Whistler has described as 'the movements of a jerky brown-mouse' appeared to the ancient Indians as the zig-zag movements of a lizard, and they very aptly named it गोधा or गोधक, cf. गोलत्तिका (aferer a lizard) for the Yellow Wagtail. The Tree-creeper, the female of the Black Drongo (TT) and the Woodpecker have been assigned to the deity presiding over the larger trees at the Horse Sacrifice: Con 1. चिकुरः पक्षिवृक्षभिदो-हेमचन्द्र, विश्वप्रकाश and मेदिनी 2. Verse 2009. though his 3. Commentator उब्बटाचार्य renders गोधा and कालका as particular birds पक्षिविशेषाः rendering of दावघाट (the woodpecker) as सारस is incorrect. कालका is proabably the same as कालिका, the female of the अङ्गारक bird in पतञ्जलि महाभाष्य 6.3.34. ar is the Black Drongo (Art. 15) and, as arifet means a fire-pan and the black and red bird of the gear tree, it is possible to explain the separate name of fire (the black one; are also means 'black') for the female as some sort of a necessity. Tree-Creepers 41 "गोधा कालका दावघाटस्ते वनस्पतीनाम्।" वाज संहिता, 24.35. The permanent association of the Tree-creeper with large trees (fa) is a well-known fact. Monitor Lizards (tur) are mostly ground crea- tures and climb trees occasionally in search of food and cannot have been intended here. The Drongo nests in the leafy crown of a tall tree and during the nesting period drives off all the large predacious birds like the Crows, Tree-pies, Kites, Hawks etc. from its vicinity and, indirectly as it were, keeps watch over the tree. The female is mentioned as she is naturally more zealous in these respects. The Woodpecker course permanently wedded to a tree-life, and herein lies the propriety of the Vedic allocation of the three birds to the Deity of the Trees. of 8 WRENS The Wrens are very small brown birds of the densest under-growth in the ever-green hilly forests. They live entirely on insects which they pursue with great energy, scrambling over mossy boulders and fallen trees. "Great skulkers and very shy, they are loath to take flight and prefer to creep away silently, if disturbed". The Brown Wren of Nepal is "a dark brown bird that creeps about under-growth like a mouse; the under-parts, which one seldom sees are white with blackish markings. Its ordinary note is a single 'zip' uttered at long intervals; in the breeding season it attempts a little song. If forced to fly it rises with a sharp 'chick' 'chick', 'chick' (Smythies). The Wrens of Kashmir and Nepal thus appear to be another group of little birds with mouse-like ways known as "चिकुर' ('चि' इति कुरति- -making the 'chi' or 'chick' sound) in Sanskrit, and the propriety of the name would seem to be highly probable. 9 DIPPERS The Dippers are curious little grey-brown birds not over nine inches long. Their short, rotund and stout bodies are specially fitted for an aquatic life. They have a dense and waterproof plumage with even the eyelids covered with feathers. Two or three species of them are found in the Hima- layas from Kashmir through Nepal to Assam. They live on water-insects and their larvae which are captured by wading, swimming and diving. They even possess the faculty of walking on the bed of the stream under water and are as perfectly at home on the most turbulent Himalayan stream as on a placid pool of water. The Brown Dipper is a common bird in Kashmir and Nepal as in other parts of the Himalayas and must have been observed by the curious ancients and named by them. Now is the name of a bird that can walk or move under water: "वजति चलति जले बज्जुल: "1 and as the most striking characteristic of the Dipper is its power of walking under water-not possessed by any other bird-the name should belong to it by right. It is known as in Hindi, perhaps a mistake in F.B.I. for, the ame as as explained above. The Dabchick or the Grebe is also because of its love of reeds and cane- brakes, known as , amongst which it places its nest and skulks about in case of danger. It is from this habit of the Grebe that the water-cane is named alsof (beloved of the bird). The Grebe too swims under water and can well claim, its name in the etymological sense of the word as brought out in the commentary of the Unādi Sūtra as quoted above. 1. उणादिनूवाणि with प्रक्रिया of नारायण, 1.93. 10 THE THRUSH FAMILY 1. This family includes the Chats, Indian and Magpie Robins, Blackbirds, Rock and Ground Thrushes, etc. of which the Chats, Robins, and Rock. Thrushes are of a comparatively small size. They are active little birds and Whistler's characterization of some of them is typical, at any rate of the majority of birds constituting the family. The Indian Bush Chat, he says, is very restless and fairly shy, and is incessantly flirting its wings and tail. The Stone Chat also behaves in a similar way. The flight of the Pied Wheat- ear is strong and fast and always low over the ground, and perching or hopping, the carriage of the bird is very spry and upright. The Black bird hops and runs, while the Red-Start shivers its tail and bobs its head like the Brown Rock-Chat and the Blue Rock-Thrushes. The demeanour of the Indian Robin again, is very sprightly, hopping about with the head held stiffly high and the tail cocked well forward over the back These points in the behaviour of this bird have also been emphasised as prognosticating attitudes by बसन्तराज :- “वध्वागमाभीप्सितकार्यसिद्धि करोति पुच्छं पुनरुत्क्षिपन्ती । नृत्यन्त्यभीक्ष्णं परमप्रमोदान्महोत्सवं मङ्गलमादिशन्ती।।” "लुठंत्यवन्यां' गुलिकेव तारा या याति पद्भ्यां गुलिकिर्मता सा।।" 7.76 7.115. 2. M. Williams renders "ar" as a sparrow and a toy horse, and the term also means a sinall pony. Apparently a particular class of birds of the 1. ar is a descriptive epithet of at when it shoots off in different directions like a meteor or shooting star (ar) -Ibid. 7.107.9. af (hopping or "fa" refers to the Robin's fast tripping movement on the ground, like at rolling little ball fer, a Prakritism) and it is called the fefe: when executing such a movement. Other styles of the bird are named leaping), स्वलित (faulty gait), गोमूविका सपंवत् (zig zagging on the wing) and शरबत् afegan (straight arrow-like flight)-ibid. 7.113-16. These clearly exhibit a certain t amount of parallelism with the dr, afera (a defect) and BTT types of motion in a horse as described in अश्व चकित्सा of नकुल Clh. 8, cited in शब्दकल्पद्रुम under घोटक, and in शुक्रनीतिसार, 4.7.144-49, Jeevanand's Edn (1898). The Thrush Family 45 size of a common sparrow was named avre by reason of a certain fancied similarity of habits with a frisky little colt. The latter is active and handsome, carries its neck and head high, flicks its táil now and then, and I has otherwise a sprightly demeanour. In the avian fauna of North India no other birds, except perhaps the White Wagtails, make a nearer approach to this picture of a little colt than the Chats and Robins, and it must be a happy inspiration of some observant sage which gave them the name of ¹ It seems to be a very ancient name and though its true significance was forgotten in later times the name itself was happily preserved in some of the manuscript lexicons for a "Sparrow" as '-' even though. a particular type of it may well have been intended, just as gives गोर वर्तक, etc. for खगे instead of "खगान्तरे"or पक्षिभेदे and yet they are names of particular birds. It is the same with other lexicons and fe lists. The name ar, however, gives us very much more information as to the sort of sparrow it is than a brief and vague lexical definition like the above. It is also interesting to note that the Northern Indian Stone-Chat is known as पिढा or कालापिद्दा; the White-tailed Bush Chat as खरपिद्दा (खर a thorny plant on which the bird often perches); the Red-Spotted Blue-throat as ftest for all in Hindi, and it is suggested that the name frer has something to do with Sanskrit f (probably the Goral Goat known as fi in Kashmir) or a (the mythical horse). Hindi tet for any insignificant bird is related to Prakrit fefefe or fufcft for the White-throated Munia and allied forms. It would seem, therefore, that the term a denotes a particular type of Sparrow-like birds and that type is represented by certain members of the Chat and the Robin group. The name, based on certain habits, may well include the smart and active Wagtails which are known as tarter' (winter-pony) in Gujarat. In this name a signifies the time when Wagtails are plentiful in the country and 'rer' their smart- ness, power of running on the ground and their tail-wagging habit. देशीनाममाला of हेमचन्द्र gives us a specific bird-name आसक्ख or आसंक्खओ (अश्वारूप, अश्वारूयक; Cf आसनबंध for अश्वस्कन्ध) which goes a great way to strengthen the above hypothesis regarding the type of sparrow-like birds indicated by the term (see below). 3. The Indian Robin is a common plains bird, about the size of a sparrow, with blackish brown upper parts, glossy black head and breast, a small white patch on the shoulder and a conspicuous chestnut patch under the tail which is offen flicked and spread out and carried erect. The female is dark brown all over and has a chestnut patch under the tail. It is mentioned as श्यामा and कपोतकी in बृहत्संहिता, and पोदकी (v.l. पोतकी) in वसन्तराज, The 1. कः प्रतिकृती; अश्वक: अश्वक रूपम्-हैमशब्दानुशासन, 7.1.154. अश्वक – a sparrow, M. W. Prakrit आसक्त (अश्वास्य) has been defined more clearly as we shall sce presently. 2. हि. श. सा. equates पिदड़ी and पीदड़ी with पिड़ी, feminine of पिद्दा This is perhaps questionable as no masculine form of पिदड़ी or पोदड़ी like पिदड़ा or पीदड़ा is known. 3. Ch. 87.5. 4. Ch. 7.4. 46 Birds in Sanskrit Literature description of a pair oft given by the latter leaves no doubt in regard to the identity of the bird. "ग्राम्येण तुल्यचटकेन नीलो योऽसौ पुमान्पाण्डुर पुण्डुपक्षः । लध्वी ततो धूमनिभा च नारी तत्पोदकी युग्ममुदाहरन्ति ।। " Trans: Equal in size to the House-sparrow the cock-bird is of a black colour and has a white wing-patch. The hen is smaller and of a smoky-brown colour. This is how a pair is identified. The prayer formula to be addressed to the bird at the time of putting a question to it for purposes of augury contains not only names that really belong to it but also of other birds of the same group and several flattering epithets consisting of names of goddess पार्वती "श्यामा वराही शकुनी कुमारी, दुर्गा च देवी चटका तथोमा। त्वं पोदकी पाण्डविका त्वमेव, त्वं कृष्णिका त्वं सितपक्षिणी च ॥ त्वं ब्रह्मपुत्री शकुनैक देवी, धनुर्धरी पान्थसमूहमाता।" It has also been called gf and gf respectively. The name पोतकी is evidently connected with Pali and Prakrit पुत्तक and पोतक for 'a litte child, a young bird or animal', cf. 'पोइय-पोतित, इतस्तत: सन्दिते" presum- ably like a frisky young goat or colt; पोआई-पोताकी, शकुन्तिकायाम्" - अभिधान- राजेन्द्र पोतकी, देवी, चटका (the Sparrow par excellence), 4 कृष्ण पक्षी, कृष्णिका and TRT are names that properly belong to it while the others are merely intended for its glorification and to stress its exceptional importance in augury. It shares the names and gure with the Shama proper, and the name rret (grafa) with the Blue-headed Rock-Thrush. The term. ferraferit though of the feminine gender like the others, refers to the male which has a white wing-bar. The popular Hindi name ret fit for it is the equivalent of कृष्ण पक्षी, 4. The Shama and the Magpie Robin are the two of the best songsters of India. The head, neck, breast, and upper plumage of the male in both are glossy black; both have a black and white tail; but as against the chestnut under-parts of the Shama those of the Magpie Robin are pure white. The latter has also a broad white wing-bar in addition while the Shama has a longer and a graduated tail. Because of the black head and neck both are the कालकण्ठ कलविङ्क of the lexicons, कलविङ्क proper of the poets and 1. 7.25. 2. 7.23-24. In the same way पिङ्गला, an Owlet has been called ब्रह्मपुवी in मानसोल्लास, 1, pp. 107 108 Names of goddess पार्वती include श्यामा, कृष्णा कुमारी, कृष्णपिङ्गला, तारा, उमा देवी, and बराही. 3. 7.19; 7.344. 4. CI. शकुनकदेवी viz.. the chief Bird-goddess of augury, and देवचकली, from देवचटक, its name. Gujarat. The Thrush Family 47 authors of the Puranas, and Pali ft of the . For different types offe see Art. 23A. are 5. Hemachandra defines आसाथ i.e. अश्वाच्य as the श्रीबद पक्षी (bird with an auspicious song, or fefe affa, uttering or ft-like whistle).sta may also be rendered as a song-bird-trafe. Now it is well-known that the Magpie Robin has, in addition to its beautiful song, a long whistling call, principally heard during the non-breeding season. It is a bird of the अश्वक group, so that अश्वाख्य and probably also अश्यक specific for it according to the rule of Hemachandra "सामान्योऽपि विशेषे वर्तते" अभिधानचिन्तामणि, 1 i.e. as the particular or typical अश्वक. 6. The Magpie Robin is mentioned as afges in to Hindi दहियर or दहिगल for it. The 'संस्कृत व प्राकृत कोश of (1872) equates with "ar", the same as Hindi names for the bird are far and g, both meaning 'a milk maid' or seller of milk and curds (af,) while in Prakrit also means a songstress. afgre, for ought one can say, may be a Prakrit form of Sanskrit f (seller of curds), or दध्यच्दध्यच् ( दधिना अञ्चितः), दध्य (दधिना अतः) and the idea underlying the name is perhaps the supposition that the original black plumage of the bird has been splashed over with curds as it were. That the idea is not foreign to the Indian mind may be seen from the ata (274) where a Crow is deprived of its feathers and painted white with curds as a punishment for stealing food from the kitchen of a Brahmaṇa. The Magpie Robin is afga in Prakrit as well:- which corresponds Godbole, Poona fr. Other Hindi "जं लावय तितिर दहिय मोरं, मारति श्रद्धोस विन्के वि घोर कुमारपाल प्रतिबोध (427 ) 7. TT means, among other things, (i) of a dark or bluish colour; (ii) 'a pretty young woman possess by implication a beautiful voice as well'; and (iii) musk or r. As a bird-name the term applies to the Shama (Turdus Macrourus) and the Indian Robin, and there is reason to believe that other blue or brown song-birds also went by this name with qualifying epithets, e.g. the Brown Rock Chat is known as far (fear earthy brown) in Hindi and the Blue Rock thrush is North and in the in the South and must have been known in Sanskrit as VTT because of its light blue colour. ef for 'a kind of Sparrow' in M. Williams and fe appropriated by a to the Indian Robin, should be the same. Again, the name gef ifnot purely honorific, would also seem to be a misappropriation, for it implies a bird of a blue colour; Cf. the complexion of goddess gaf described as blue like the linseed-flower:- 1. 404 2. 8.2,52. 3. Now renamed Kittacincla macroura in F. B. I. 2nd Edn. 4. See Para 3. 48 Birds in Sanskrit Literature अतसीपुष्पवर्णाभां सुप्रतिष्ठां सुलोचनाम् । -शब्दकल्प under दुर्गा fshould, therefore, be the Blue Rock Both gaf and like Thrushes as both mean also the flax or अतसी plant : "उमा दुर्गाऽतसी स्मृता"- उणादिसूत्रवृत्ति (उज्ज्वलदत्त ) :1.143; अतसी नीलपुष्पी च पार्वती स्याद्रुमा शुमा- धन्वन्तरि Later on, however, some of the birds that bore the name of came to be known by the synonymous term ¹ and thence as . Thus we have कस्तूरी or कस्तूरा for the Black-birds and कस्तूरा for the Himalayan Whistling Thrush. The Blue-headed Rock Thrush is greft (graf) in Nepal and was probably for applied later by to the Indian Robin. 8. We have seen that वसन्तराज has कुमारी (one of the names of goddess पार्वती) as one of the names for the Indian Robin, but there is reason to believe that it was originally a name for the Shama. The male Shama is black above and down to the lower breast, chestnut below and has a prominent white patch above the base of the tail which is black and white. The cons- picuous colour pattern of the bird is fully comparable with the description of the goddess gure created by the combined energy issuing from the eyes of ब्रह्मा, विष्णु and महेश according to a statement in the वायुपुराण :- "विवर्णा न कुमारी सा कृष्णा शुक्ला च पीतिका ।" gras a bird-name, therefore, may well belong to the Shama, the best Indian songster, in her own right and would appear to have been appro- priated by as a compliment to the Indian Robin. It may be that the description of the goddess gurê herself was taken over from the bird bearing the name. It must, however, be conceded that the male Robin. also is almost black throughout, has white wing-patch, visible in flight, and a little chestnut under the tail. The white and chestnut are not, however, half as conspicuous as in Shama the Robin is almost a black by comparison and has been rightly named कृष्णपक्षी. 9. is a small song-bird' ir M. Williams, and should mean the Ruby-throat which is "a robin-like bird ashy-slate above with a white forehead, chin and throat bright crimson bordered with black". (S. Ali- Indian Hill Birds). "It runs and hops about on the ground,....wings partly drooping, tail cocked and switched over the back now and again.... In all its movements and behaviour it is extremely reminiscent of the familiar Blue-throat of the plains in winter, and in some ways also of the Indian Robin.... In the breading season the cock utters a lively pleasant song" (ibid). It is quite common in the North-Indian plains during winter. 748 (having a red throat) for a small song-bird should therefore belong to it, for no other song bird with a contrasting red throat or neck. is known in India. as a homonym is also an epithet of the 1. राजनिघण्टु 2. Ch. 90.23. The Thrush Family cuckoo in the sense of a bird with a passionate call- affected by or love and voice. Similarly var'a kind of small bird' in Wilson's Dictionary may well be the Red-spotted Blue-throat, another winter. visitor of the same area. Its Hindi name fr frar is fully synonymous with. It may be added that was is also an adnoun for the Peacock while the Magpie Robin, the House Sparrow and the White birds share the Wagtail amongst the smaller adnoun नीलकण्ठ (नील black) but not 49 10. कपेक्षुक is a bird of augury in वसन्तराज' and if it is from कप्– कम्पू॰ to tremble and re a kind of grass, it should be the Black Redstart which "has the ague in its tail" like a blade of grass trembling in the breeze. Its Hindi name is धरथरकंपा or simply विरथिरा (स्थिर+अस्थिर ?). धन्वन्तरि distinguishes between and and defines the latter as "af" i.e. बज्जरी is a bird with a trembling tail, and this and चलपिच्छक (चल-कम्पने ) seem to be other names for the Redstart, unless they refer to the Pippits (Art. 26 B). 11. The Grey-winged Black-bird is a well-known and fanfiliar bird of its class and goes under the Hindi name of कस्तूरी and कस्तूरा (कस्तूरी - श्यामा, the dark coloured). The inale, being black with grey patches on the wings is about eleven inches long. It has a coral red to deep orange. bill and is "one of the finest and best known songsters of the Himalayas." For this reason it is a favourite cage-bird. Allied forms occur in the central parts of the country and in the Nilgiris. डल्हणाचार्य on सुश्रुत explains कलविङ्क as "कालचटक: भृङ्गराजाद् भिन्न:". It follows that, like the Magpie Robin (कालकण्ठ f) this bird too was regarded as a kind of fg and was known as (Black-bird or Black-sparrow) which is the same as or antag for चटक is synonymous with कलविड in a special sense "चटक: कलवि स्यात्"अमर. The name कालचटक, it may be noted, is applied in certain parts of the country to the Common Black Drongo or the Himalayan Whistling Thrush because all three have a black plumage. It is not to be wondered at if in a vast country like India names based on colour are applied to different birds in different parts of the country. (8.2.50) also mentions the Blackbird by the name of कालचटक 5 12. aforgue ('red-billed') as a Himalayan bird may well be the Grey- winged Blackbird unless it is the coral billed Scimitar Babbler as suggested in Art. 5:- 1. 8.2.51. 2. Words like fa and are traced to root fa in M. W. and Unadi. Compare also alternative forms like कपिल्वलक and कम्पिल्सक The The name is evidently coined after are for the Wagtail. Wire-tailed Swallow is known as "Leishra" (?) in the Punjab from the resemblance of the tail-wires with the 'Leishra'-grass (Jerdon). mentioned by end and the Black Drongo are allied forms within. the same family. Dicruridae (Art. 15). 4. 3. वसन्तराज mentions the Black Drongo under the name of फेण्ट (Art. 15). 50 "नानावर्णैच शकुनै: नानारत्नतनूरुहैः । सुवर्णपुष्पश्चाकं मणितुण्डेद्वजातिभिः ।। Birds in Sanskrit Literature वायुपुराण 39.18. Blackbirds belong to the sub-family containing the true Thrushes which, unlike the Shama, the Magpie Robin, Chats etc. which are purely insecti- vorous, include small fruits and berries as well in their dietary. They feed a good deal on the ground, turning over the leaves and digging with the bill in soft soil for worms, grubs, etc. The Magpie Robin also feeds on the ground but entirely on insects. कलविङ्क placed in the विष्रवर्ग by सुश्रुत and प्रतुदवर्ग by चरक and कुलिङ्गक (प्रकाराचे प्रशंसाय वा कन् प्रत्ययः) as its synonym apparently refers to these two song-birds of the size of a sparrow (कुलिङ्ग) :- "कलविङ्कः स्मृतो ग्रामचटकेऽपि कुलिङ्गके – विश्वप्रकाश 13. It has been stated above that the names श्रीवद and श्यामा are shared by more than one bird and it is perhaps advisable to bring them together: (I) श्रीवद i) श्रीवद— the Whistling Thrush (para. 15 below). ii) श्रीवद——the Sibia (Art. 6); iii) मधुक श्रीवद—the Tora (Art. 6); iv) अश्वक श्रीवद—the Magpie Robin. (II) श्यामा :- i) देवी श्यामा-- the Indian Robin; (ii) कुमारी श्यामा - the Shama: iii) पाण्ड श्यामा or पाण्डविक-- the Blue Rock Thrush; (iv) मणितुण्ड श्यामा – the Blackbird. 14. The Magpie Robin, the Shama and the Grey-winged Blackbird sing morning and evening from the top of a tree and they लविङ क the of literature in the following examples though the probability in favour of the Magpie Robin is the greatest as it is the most common bird both of the plains and the outer Himalayas. The pleasant conversation and handsome looks of Lord Buddha have been compared with those of the कलविङ्क :- 1. I.e. कलविङ्कः स्मृतो कुलिङ्गके ग्रामचटकेऽपि. The name कलविङ्क properly belongs to the कुलिङ्गक bird and also by extension or courtesy to the House Sparrow. This seems to be the force of अपि in the synonymy. For कुलिङ्ग see Art. 23.A. 2. Altogether there are seven different types of कलविङ्क- (i) रक्तशीर्ष कलविङ्क, the Rose Finch, (ii) पीतमुण्ड कलविङ्क the Yellow headed Weaver-bird (iii) सेव्य कलबि the Red Munia (iv) तिलककण्टक कलवि the crested Lark, (v) श्यामा कलबिछू the Shama, (vi) कालकण्ठ कलवि, the Magpie Robin. and (vii) मणितुण्ड कलविक, the Blackbird (see Art. 23 A.) of these only the last three are the true songsterns of India. The Magpie Robin is communon in the plains and hills, the Blackbird is common in the outer Himalayas and occurs at high elevation here and there, and the Shama is a bird of deep forests. The firg of the passages quoted is most probably the beautiful Robin. The plain looking crested Lark and its cousin the Skylark ( भरद्वाज) magpie. do not sing from tree tops and neither of these can be intended (Art. 27). The Thrush Family "कलविङ को यथा पक्षी दर्शनेन स्वरेण वा"-- "कलविङ करुतेन स्वरेण वल्गुना मनोशेन"- "इति वाक्यमिद निशम्य राज्ञः कलविङ्कस्वर उत्तर बभाषे" "मदकलकलविङकी काकुनान्दी करेभ्यः क्षितिरुहशिखरेभ्यो भानुमानुच्चिनोति" ललितविस्तर, Ch. 12. बुद्धचरित, 5.34. the कलविद्रक for his beautiful A very handsome tribute is first paid to song and yet it is said that he is far from attaining the sweetness of the Lord's Voice: "द्विजगण कलविङ्कमञ्जुघोषाः सुरुचिरप्रेमणीयाः सुगीतशब्दाः । शंखपटहरिवीणशब्दाः कलमपि न लभन्ति बुद्धशब्दे ॥ A number of them welcome with a chorus the sun rising from the ocean :- " "कृतकलकलविङकालापकोलाहलाभिः । जलनिधिजलमध्यादेष उत्तार्यतेऽकंः ।। सुभाषितरत्नावलि, Verse 2185. and like the Thrush of Robert Burns the कलविङक also 'sings drowsy day to rest' : "सुग्रीवकाञ्चनरवैः कलविङकरुतैस्तथा । कूजितान्तरणब्द व सुरम्याणि च सर्वशः । 51 Ibid., Ch. 21. अनर्घराघव, Act 2, 45. It may be noted that it is the male which sings but the poet's partiality for the gentler sex is responsible for the use of the feminine. European poets also make the Cock Nightingale, which alone sings, of the feminine gender. In the description of a Himalayan scene the Magpie Robin or the Shama is mentioned with the Black-headed Oriole which too is noted for its sweet. fluty notes:- "चकोरैः शतपवैश्च भृङ्गराजस्तथा शुकैः । कोकिल कलविङकै हारितैर्जीवजीवकैः ।। वायुपुराण, 36.4. and the महाभारत too places the कलविङ with other sweet voiced birds of the Himalayas: 3.158.52-53. This and the verse following it have been copied into the मार्कण्डेय पुराण, 6.13-19. 1. कलमपि कलामपि, not in the slightest. समाधिराजसूत्रम्, Gilgit manuscripts, Vol. 2, edited by Dr. N. Dutt, 1941, 14th परिवर्त, 29. See also verses 53 and 84 ibid. 52 Birds in Sanskrit Literature A good description of the charming song of कलविङ क (Pali करवीक ) is contained in verse 39 of the affamara where the amorous voice of the princess affer in the garb of a fare is compared with that of the bird: "अकक्कसं अगलितं मह मुहूं अनुद्धतं अचपलंस्म भासितं । रुदं मञ्ज करवीक मुम्मरं हृदयंगमं रंजयतेव में मनो ॥ The "करविया" (करवीका कलविङ का) of the बेस्संतर जातक again are these birds and to translate as 'a Cuckoo' is clearly incorrect. For Magpie Robin as a nominal victim for god erg at the see Art. 23A. 15. The Himalayan whistling Thrush is a deep blue-black bird, brighter on the wings and tail with black legs and eye-rim which latter distinguishes it from the not much smaller Blackbird in which these parts are yellow. Another race of this Thrush, the Malabar Whistling Thrush occurs in the Indian Peninsula south of the Satpuras. The call is a loud melodious whistle, Blackbird-like in tone but more powerful and resembling the human whistle, hence it is nick-named 'the whistling school-boy' by the European residents of the country. It is known as fere (making a 'see' or st like whistle) in Telugu and is evidently the same as Sanskrit श्रीबद (श्री-इति वदतीति ). Its Hindi names कालजित and कस्तूरा correspond to Sanskrit कालचटक and श्यामा respectively for the Blackbird because both are of a black colour and have a similar whistling call. 16. The black and white Fork-tails of the Himalayan streams resem- ble the Wagtail in general outline and have also the tail-wagging habit so that they are likely to be "mistaken for a Wagtail". They are actually known as in Kashmir and scem to be the bird fa rendered as a kind of Wagtail' by M. Williams, Wilson and riff. The name itself implies a bird that is not a Wagtail proper but has the shape of one. 17. The Golden Bush-Robin of Nepal with a beautiful plumage of olive- green black and bright orange goes by the name of मनसिल फो ( मन:शिल चटक) in Assam. in the Himalayan dialects means 'a Sparrow', (Cf. Sansk. g for a bird). We have the term f (native red arsenic) used to describe the plumage of a bird in the following verse which makes it highly probable that this bird was known as af we in Sanskrit as well though the name has not been preserved in the current lexicons:- "मनःशिलाभवंदनैविहङगा...." -- सौन्दरनन्द, 10.28. 1. Story No. 526 which is probably based upon the story of in M. Bh. 3.111-112. and 2. I refer to the English translation of the Jataka by H.T. Francis, edited by E. B. Cowell, and the Pali Dictionary (P.T.S. edn.). Since wrting the above I have had occa- sion, through the courtesy of Dr. Lokesh Chandra. to glance through Asia Major. New Series Vol. II, Part I. 1951 where at p. 38 H. W. Bailey has traced ft in a Khotanese Buddhist document to कलविकरविक, 11 FLYCATCHERS 1. This family of birds contains a large number of species and is well-repre- sented in India, but quite a few of them are only winter visitors with us. There is no mistaking a Flycatcher as all of them catch their insect food on the wing. Some species carry on their operations from a fixed perch while others return to a different perch after every sally into the air at flying insects. They are weak in the legs and rarely descend to the ground but when they do so they generally do not walk or hop about. The smaller and rather plain coloured birds like the Flycatcher Warblers, would pass for a fer but the larger and more strikingly plumaged birds, like the Blue, the Fan-tail and the Paradise Flycatchers, have distinctive names in Sans- krit. 2. लट्वा is a प्रतुद (pecking) bird चरक and सुश्रुत and it is mentioned within ¹ The blue-coloured Niltava Flycatcher is known as terdar ortacar in Hindi (F.B.I.). This last name is probably from Sanskrit नीलला and is the same as the नीलचटक or 'Blue Sparrow'. is, therefore, a Flycatcher which is not of a blue colour, and as a means 'a dancing boy', should be the Fantail Flycatchers considered in paragraph 3 below and the white- spotted Fantail of the Peninsula. "For liveliness and grace", says Whistler, "it is not to be surpassed. It is never still, and the whole livelong day it dances and pirouettes, filled with an inimitable joie de vivre,..it turns from side to side with restive jerky movements; like a ballet-dancer it tries new steps and attitudes.....Never was bird better named." The Fantail rises and falls perpendicularly in the air, opening the fan-shaped tail or completely tumbles over. The bird also combines a pretty little song of some five or six loud whistling notes with its dancing movements, and it is hardly necessary to add that the movement of its tail recalls the expanding skirt of a dancing girl during a performance. The of in 1. 8.2.49-50. 2. लटवा in a general sense means a sparrow and has been rendered as ग्रामचटक, the House Sparrow in , but the name applies to particular birds (by the rule साधारणोऽपि विशेषे वर्तते, अभि. चिन्ता.) c.g. the short-toed Bush-lark (लट्वाका) ( Art 26.) and probably also the Red Munia. नीललट्वाललोपः नीलट्वा, नीलटवा नौलतवा 3. Cambridge Natural History, Vol. IX. 54 Birds in Sanskrit Literature is, therefore, this Flycatcher, and, provided this identification is reasonably correct, one can say with Whistler, "never was bird better named" in Sanskrit. For ear (fr. aa a curl on the forehead) as the White- cheeked Bulbul see Art. 6 and for wear, the Red Munia, Art. 22-B. 3. बिहार ("विहारस्तु परिक्रम:- क्रीडा सञ्चरणम्- रामाश्रमीटीका on अमर) according to शब्दकल्पद्रुम and शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि is the बिन्दुरेखक (बिन्दुविशिष्टा रेखा यत्न) bird. विहार also means 'sport or play' and 'a grove', farg is a 'spot or drop',and te on er is a 'row or series', 'border or edge'. These make it clear that the bird meant is of sporting or playful habits, frequents groves, and has a row or line of spots in its plumage. These characteristics obtain in the White-browed and the White-throated Fantail Flycatchers both of which have their tail feathers tipped white, and the tails when expanded exhibit a prominent border of white or white spots. They are, as we have already seen, of sportive habits and frequent groves of trees in garden or woodland. fargre and fate may well thus be the names for the above two Fantails. within the larger a group of Fantail Flycatchers. 4. The most striking member of the present family is the Paradise Flycatcher (21" inclusive of 16" of central pair of tail feathers), sometimes called the Ribbon Bird. The crested head of the male and female is black. The young cock-bird is chestnut above and carries a pair of thin ribbon- like central tail-feathers of the same colour up to about two years of age after which it acquires the adult plumage which is pure white except for the head and the wingquills which are black. The female is chestnut above with a grey breast like the young male and sometimes grows the long central tail-feathers of a chestnut colour. They are most beautiful birds and their presence definitely adds to the charm of every grove, garden or hermitage. It must be their grace and beauty which moved the law-givers like and to include them in the list of birds prohibited as food, for otherwise they are so small that few would be tempted to kill them for the pot. sa 5. मनु calls it रज्जुवाल' and याज्ञवल्क्य, रज्जुदालक, The commentators have missed the identity of the bird, and while some have rendered it Woodpecker others have held it to be some water-bird, but the names. themselves hardly leave any room for doubt. is 'a cord or string' and are 'a tail' (Cf. -black-tailed'). दल is a leaf or पत्र and therefore stands for a feather. rers, from root, to split may also 1. 5.12. रज्जुरिव वाल पुच्छमस्य रज्जुवाल. In the commentarirs on मनुस्मृति मेधातिथि frankly remarks that the birds in question should be identified with the help of fowlers ( रज्जुदालादयः शाकुनिकेभ्य: उपलब्धव्याः), कुल्लूक and नन्दन are silent. रामचन्द्र accepts the मिताक्षरा on याज्ञवल्लय while सर्वशनारायण calls it a kind of water bird (जलचरपक्षिभेदः) which again is incorrect. 2. 1.174. दलं-खण्डम् रज्जुदलाभ्यां द्विदलारज्जुभ्यां द्विदलाकृता, दारिता, रज्ज्वा वा युक्तः रज्जुदाल: The मिताक्षरा on याज्ञवल्क्य renders it as बुक्षकुट्टक: a woodpecker of कोट्टन for the same in Pali (Art. 34). M.W. does not give this word but has an entry for ere, rendered as a 'tree-fowl. wild cock' which seems to be not quite correct. 55 Flycatchers refer to the two central tail-feathers as if they were the 'split' or separated strands of a cord. The (string or ribbon-tailed) is therefore no other than the Paradise Flycatcher. 6. is one of the birds assigned for the sun in his friendly aspect in the बाज संहिता:- "शार्गः सृजयः शयाण्डकस्ते मैवाः" । is the Bee-eater (Art. 40) and the sun-loving Lizard (शयण्डक), both of insectivorous habits. सुजय too should therefore be an insect-destroying bird-all three being friendly to the crop or fruit- farmer. Now means 'to let go or fly' or 'to cast or let go (a measuring line)' M. Williams. श्वेतवनवासिन् has "सृज्यत इतिरज्जु गुणमयी", उणादि, 1.10 and bearing these in mind it would seem that also is the Paradise. Flycatcher which during flight appears (i) to have been tied string and let go like a paper kite, (ii) as leading away a measuring string, or (iii) carrying a pair of strands as if to twist them into a cord a ( रज्जु सृजति सृजय: ) 8 7. The bird in the following passage would again seem to be this beautifully white Flycatcher: "समीक्ष्यमाणौ पुष्पाढ्यं सर्वतो विपुलद्रुमम् । कोयष्टिकंचार्जुनकैः शतपतंश्च कीचकैः ।। एतैश्वान्यैश्च विहगैर्नादितं तु वनं महत् । -- रामायण 3.75, 18-19. The word is indicative of the whiteness of several things including ‘milk and it also means straw or a blade of grass' (अर्जुनस्तुणे-उज्ज्वलदत्त ), Our bird is milk-white (cf. its Hindi name, g) and appears also to carry a couple of pieces of straw in its tail. It may be added that ofer also means a Peacock which, however, has always been mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa by the well-known names of and af, and has actually been so named a few lines below the verses quoted above. Moreover the 1. 24.39 Hindi सेछागुन if from स्वच्छ गुण (a white thread) or स्वेच्छा + गुण (growing a cord at will), may well be this bird (हिन्दी शब्द-सागर), 2. See Art. 71 para. 10. 3. Compare "farsa, 5.7 prohibiting a woman in a state of "impurity' from making a rope, lest her womb gets twisted and becomes unfit to conceive a baby. 4. 3umfegagfer, 3.59. The Wire-tailed Swallow is known as leishra' ('a kind. of grass' according to Jerdon) in the Punjab as the tail-wires look like pieces of straw. The tree. Terminalia arjuna, is so named from its white trunk and the arfa variety of grass too must be one of a whitish colour. according to it is also a kind of lizard, apparently with a long thread like tail, probably, the Long-tailed Green Calotes (C. ophiomachus) having a body of five and tail of twenty inches. This lizard does not occur in North India and can not have been intended in the passage from the afgar where the commentator takes for a particular bird. 3. दूधराज fr. दुग्ध milk with root राज् to shine or दुग्ध राजि 3 white streak or line. 56 Birds in Sanskrit Literature name for a forest-bird has occurred only once and that in the Rāmāyaṇa and nowhere else except perhaps in the Atharva Veda, 4.37.5 in association with large trees which this bird always frequents. with other insect eating birds. (sec Art. 34). to the 8. Pali ¹ is a Himalayan bird in the term and looking "streamers of white satin ribbon" worn by the Paradise Flycatcher in its tail, the name should belong to it; Cf. चेतावक (चेलबक) of grem for the Large Egret (Art. 82). The original sense of the word was probably 'a strip of white cloth', as may be seen from the alternative reading of "श्वेतकण्ठिनः", per M. Williams in "कलशाश्वल- कण्ठिन: "हरिवंश, where the picce of cloth wound round the neck of a ceremonial jar of water was of a white colour as is the Brahmanical practice even today. This would, therefore, seem to suggest that sense of a which makes its identification with our bird more certain.. We have therefore रज्जुवाल, सृजय and अर्जुनक in Sanskrit and चेलकेंद्र in Fali for this strikingly beautiful bird. has the 9. Finally, all small Flycatchers, like the little Warblers, are simply चटिका ("चटिका : क्षुद्रपक्षिकाः”–अभिधानरत्नमाला of हलायुध) as may be seen from the fact that the Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher and the Blue-throated Flycatcher are actually known as चटकी in Bengal. Both चटिका and चटकिका are diminutive forms from e (a sparrow) and apply to all tiny birds. of a non-descript character. The personal names, उद्दालक आरुणि and श्वेतकेतु आरुणय occurring in the Satapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Upanişads, like other names based upon the names of birds, e.g. कापोति, हारीत, मयूर, etc. etc. are to be traced to the Paradise Flycatcher which begins to breed when still in its immature chestnut (ar) plumage. 1. चेल-चीर, a narrow strip of cloth. चीर is rendered as कच्छाटिका ic. कोपीन in शब्दकल्पद्रुम केतु a streamer, d. उदक्षिपन् पट्टदुकूलकेतून - भट्टिकाव्य 3.34. चेलकेदु is thus the same as चीरकेतु चेल चीरमिवोत्क्षिपति खेलकेतुः a bird which carries aloft a streamer as it were. 2. verse 2099, 3. 2.50.72. 12 SHRIKES The Shrikes "are in many respects very closely allied to the Flycatchers. both in habits and structure"-F.B.I., 2nd edn. Most of them are cast in a common mould and resemble one another not only in general appear- ance but also in habits. A majority of them are a little heavier than the common Sparrow but with decidedly longer tails. Clad in shades of grey, black, chestnut, white, etc., they are smart and pretty looking birds, often seen perched on an outer branch of a bush or low tree on a keen lookout for insects butter-flies and grasshoppers. They are of crepuscular habits and, like the flycatchers, begin their activities early at dawn and continue to catch insects till late in the evening. In view of these characters the ancients placed them with the Flycatchers (ar) and named them सदूषक (लट्व-सद् + उषस् + क ? ). उषस् means both morning and evening'- उषः सन्ध्याप्रभातयो:-हेमचन्द्र, and the form also, rendered as 'dawn or day- break' by M. Williams and Wilson, should have both the above senses of . , therefore, is a bird that begins to hunt for insects early in the morning and is active till after sunset. बरक, and चकदत gards them as Both लट्वा and लदूषक are प्रतुद bire allied forms of Bulbuls- लट्वा फेब्चाको रखतपुच्छाधोभागः, लट्वकोऽपि तद्भेद" Here the identification of ar with the Red-vented Bulbul perhaps slightly incorrect, for it is the yellow-vented White-cheeked Bulbul (Art. 6). is a homonym and means not only the last-named Bulbul but also a Flycatcher (Art. 11) and it is in the latter sense of the term that should be regarded as allied to लट्वा (तद्भेदः i.e. सट्वाभेद:). The common Hindi names for the Shrike are लहटोरा, ल्ह्टोरा and नटोरा, probably from लदूषक -लषट्रक-लहटोर- ल्हटोरा-लटोरा. 1. The area is the Red-vented Bulbul and is a variety of it'-See Art. 6 for the Bulbuls. 13 MINIVETS 1. The Minivets are small Sparrow-like birds (6"-9")with comparatively long tails and of colourful plumage with red or yellow conspicuous in most cases. Some have glistening black and scarlet as part of their dress. They are usually met with in parties and keep to tree-tops where they search for their insect food in the foliage. Constantly uttering their soft cheeping notes, a party keeps together flitting from tree to tree "in follow-my-leader- fashion". This trait has given them the pretty names of or girl friends) and #art (the seven girl friends or sporting girls) in Bengali. (little 2. Hymn 191 of the first Mandala of the Rgveda is a charm against the poison of snakes, scorpions, insects etc. where wf (verse 11), विष्णुलिङ्गक (verse 12), and मयूरी with सप्तस्वसार: (verse 14 ) are invoked for protection or cure. wgfar and are of course birds but some translators have not accepted Sayana's suggestion that fagfe also is a particular bird, while has been rendered as the 'seven rays of the sun' or 'seven rivers' of the Punjab. 3. The numbers 'three', 'seven' and 'three times seven' are evidently supposed to have some magical significance and have been greatly in favour with ancient peoples, but in the present context they appear to have, in addition, a somewhat real, though necessarily vague, reference to actual numbers as well. 1. 11.42 and 43. 2. No. 4. 4. Sayaņa has explained wyf as a ft which may mean either the female Grey Partridge (fs) or more probably a Quail (cf. "वर्तीरोऽल्पकपिजलः"कल्पदुकांश ). In RVi as also in खिलसूक्त the कपिल has been called a w or which would justify Sayana's inter- pretation, but the diminutive form "fr" seems to point to a smaller bird of the Partridge kind. However that may be, I must refer to a treatment for snake-bite sometimes practised in the Indian villages with the help of a fowl. The open (i.e. forced open) cloaca of a live chicken is pressed on the site of a bite and the poison is supposed to be sucked up Minivets 59 by the gradually closing organ of the bird, and a similar treatment with Quail or Partridge in place of the chicken would seem to be indicated in verse 11 of the hymn. This is merely by the way and has nothing to do with the Minivets. 5. The free of verse 12 is, according to Sayana, a kind of bird but has been translated too literally as "sparks of fire" by Griffith. I consider Sayana's hint of a bird to be correct, and most probably it is the Scarlet Minivet or its smaller cousin, the Short-billed Minivet. In both. the head and the upper parts are glossy black, and the lower parts, rump, most of the tail and a bar on the wing bright scarlet. They are entirely arboreal and move from tree to tree in flocks which sometimes number as many as thirty to forty birds. "Feeding in the trees or flitting one by one across a patch of open the scarlet and black of the males and the yellow of the females is so conspicuous and so attractive in the sun-light" that not much of imagination is required to compare the picture with a series of scintillating sparks of fire, and who will say that the name fagfer is inappropriate for them? During the great fire in the forest the flying sparks are described by क्षेमेन्द्र :- "स्फुलिङ्गनिचया बलेविचेरुस्तरलत्विषः" (भारतमञ्जरी ) । and need one be surprised at the Scarlet Minivet being named frefer? 6. These birds kill and eat various kinds of insects that haunt the trees. and were naturally supposed to enjoy immunity against insect poison. The idea is somewhat analogous to the virtue attributed to goat's milk as a protection against injury because the animal eats all kinds of herbs:- ग्रजा ह सर्वा श्रोषधीरत्ति सर्वासामेवैता--- मेतदोषधीनां रसेनाऽऽच्छृणत्ति । (शत. ब्राह्मण ) s Jerdon named this Minivet 'the Fiery Red Bird' which happens to be a very good rendering of the Vedic name. The very ancient practice of burning the site of injury by any poisonous agency with a live charcoal could also suggest these Minivets which resemble in a way a piece of half-glowing charcoal, partly black and partly bright red. 7. The Peahens, as snake-eaters, certainly deserve a place in the hymn but what are the rear the Seven Sisters? Are they too not some kind of bird? The Rosy and Small Minivets, moving as they do in small parties of six or seven are known in Bengal as art (the seven companion birds) and art or et in Hindi, and as their habits are similar to those of the Scarlet Minivets the reference may well be to them. The fact, however, that they come along with ground-birds like the Peahens makes for their identity with birds of the Jungle or Common Babbler type which kill and eat lizards, frogs, spiders, etc., and hunt for centipedes and insects in the grass and under-growth in semi-open jungle 1. आदिपर्व 1369. 2. 6.5.4.16. 60 Birds in Sanskrit Literature where they seem not to be afraid of noxious vermin. Significantly enough they go by the traditional names of सात बहिन or सात भाई, 'Seven Sisters or Brothers' in North India. If therefore these humble-looking birds are rare: they, can certainly claim high Vedic recognition ! the 8. The Minivets and Babblers mentioned above are all denizens of the lower Himalayas from the Sutlej valley eastwards and therefore well within the geographical limits of the later Rgvedic culture. 9. I may finally quote an interesting Hindi verse of Jamal, a Muslim poet, which is based on the same ideas of sympathetic magic as underlie the above hymn. A love-lorn young woman attemps to practise a charm against her tormentors, the Cuckoo, the bright Moon, the gentle breeze and finally the God of Love: "वायस, राहू, भुजंग, हर, लिखति त्रिया तत्काल लिखि लिखि मेटै सुन्दरी कारन कौन जमाल ?" Trans: "The pretty lady figures (upon the ground) the Crow, the Planet Rahu, the Python snake, and God Shiva, but immediately rubs them off, Jamal asks, why? 10. The answer is that the figures are meant to spite the enemies- the Crow to silence the Cuckoo; Rahu to swallow up the Moon; the Python (वायुभक्ष) to suck up and stop the breeze; and God Shiva to suppress कामदेव the God of Love. But no sooner the figures are completed she realizes her folly, for she would want them all when her husband returns home, and lest the charm becomes perminently effective she hastens to erase the drawings. 14 SWALLOW-SHRIKES insects The Ashy Swallow Shrike is the only bird of this family which occurs in India. It is of a plain grey-brown colour and of the size of a Sparrow. It has very long wings and resembles a Swallow in its method of hunting for the wing. "They are most elegant birds when on the wing and but for their constant harsh cry and their comparative slow sailing through the air, might be taken for a bevy of large Grey Swallows on the wing" (S. Baker). They often nest at the base of the leaves of palms (ar) or palm-ferns. Now in Sanskrit means a Sparrow and also a Swallow or Swift so that the name 'ara', by which the Ashy Swallow Shrike is known in Bengal, should also be a Sanskrit name for it, and it very naturally shares this name with the Palm-Swift (Art. 45). 15 DRONGOS The Drongos (Drongo Shrikes or Fork-tailed Shrikes) are a well known family of Indian birds defined by their black plumage and long forked tails. They are entirely insectivorous, and being weak in the legs they are incap- able of any progression on the ground or even along the branch of a tree so that their movements are entirely aerial and they sally forth from a fixed perch after flying insect, picking them off from the tree trunks as well. Some, like the Black Drongo, descend to the ground to pick up a morsel while its larger cousins, the Racket-tailed ones, are entirely arboreal and hunt in the air from high or low vantage points. They are the bravest of our birds, dashing headlong at and driving away any unwanted intruder, including Hawks, Kites, Crows etc., from the vicinity of their nests or young, but allowing harmless birds like the Oriole to build their nests on the same tree. The Drongos share in common the Sanskrit name, , after their black colour like that of the large Black Bee (), and, Hindi भुजङ्ग (भुजं वक्रं गच्छति), after their agile swoops turning and twisting dextrously in the air like a serpent on the ground. The larger Racket-tailed Drongos, however, go by the name of Bhriga-raja. The main characteris- tics of important species and their names in a few of the Provincial verna- culars, given below, should serve as a brief introduction to them. 1. The Common Black Drongo is one of the mest familiar birds of the Indian plains: Entire plumage black glossed with blue but with a small white spot close to the angle of the gape. It has "cheery loud notes", des- cribed also as "harsh scolding or challenging calls". It rides on the backs of grazing cattle and takes toll of insects disturbed by the animal's move- ments through the grass-hence its Sanskrit epithet, , and as its food consists of insects it is highly beneficial to agriculture (Salim Ali; Douglas Dewar) which fully explains its another epithet, (produ- cer of wealth, i.e., valuable food crops-M.W.'s Dict.). Approaching nec- tariferous flowers for insects, it also feeds on floral nectar (S. Ali). These birds also turn up for a real feast in front of advancing clouds of smoke emerging from a forest fire particularly in open grass lands, or fired grass patches. Large numbers of grasshoppers and other insects are put up at the time and the plucky birds snap them up as they rise low in the air. This behaviour of the Drongo, known to the ancients and recorded by modern bird observers like Salim Ali and witnessed by me too, accounts for 63 Drongos its name qe in Sanskrit (qrai refe). No other bird in nature can put up with smoke rising from such a fire and so close to it. The name que is equated with #fore in Viśva-prakaśa, and the latter is explained in Sabda-kalpadruma: कलि चिचि कुचीति शब्देन कलहं करोति descriptive of the bind's pugnacity and challenging calls. It is in this very sense that the bird has been given the names of कलिङ्ग (कलहं गच्छति) and कुलिङ्ग (कुत्सित लक्षण यस्य having bad or wicked characteristics), and in MBh. I. ch. 61.9, the brave Duryodhana is said to have adopted the ways of the Kulinga bird (the Black Drongo) to worry the Pandavas and drive them away from the kingdom. It is also known as ar (black like charcoal) in Hindi, which is just synonymous with Skt. a (black like charcoal) for the male, and T (Kala, black) for the female (see M. W., s.v. kälaká). In बाज० संहिता 24.35, गोधा (iguana, an arboreal lizard), कालका (the female Drongo), and refere (woodpecker bird) are quite properly associated with and allotted ritually to far. The Bengali name for the bird, फिङ्गा, is a Prakrit derivative from the root पिज्, पिज्जु, to make a sound, or from, and the Punjabi fre for it would thus seem to be from जल्पक काल-चटक, the prattling black bird. 2. The Himalayan and the Indian Grey Drongos: The whole upper plumage is indigo-blue with a high gloss and the lower plumage dark grey. Their ways are those of the Black Drongo. They have a very large vocabulary of notes, some harsh and some sweet, and a very musical song uttered almost throughout the year. In addition to this they are also excellent mimics (S. Baker). Both are known as after fir in Bengal. 3. The White-bellied Drongo: Upper plumage deep glossy indigo with greenish reflections in certain lights; breast brownish grey; belly, posterior flan and undertail coverts white. Song sweeter than that of the preceding two, and habits those of the family; found in the Himalayas and the greater part of India except the Punjab, Sind and Rajasthan. It fre- quents plantations and cultivated lands for its insect food. It is known as धौरी भुजंगा (Sk. धवल, white) in Hindi. 4. The Northern Bronzed Drongo: Whole plumage black glossed with bronze, shining green or lilac in certain lights; bill flatter, less carinated, than that of other members of the family. It is a bird of the outer Himalayas from Mussoorie to Assam. "Although like the rest of the family it has many discordant cries, it has a sweet song and many pleasant call-notes as well. It is as plucky in defence of territory, nests or young as are all the other genera of this family." (S. Baker). It is known as (Sk. ferre, flat)) after its flattish bill, in Nepal, and eter, from its small size, in Bengal. 5. The Indian Hair-crested Drongo: Whole plumage black with blue gloss on head, neck, and breast, inclining to bronze on wing and tail. About half a dozen long hairs spring from the posterior crown lying over the neck and back. The tail is nearly square. Voice louder and more diversified 64 Birds in Sanskrit Literature It occurs from Mussoorie to Assam. than any except the next two. (Sk. केशराज, केश्य ) after It is locally known as केसराज and केसिया the hairs on the head. Its name in Telugu, Yentiká passålå poligadu, also means the 'Haired Cattle-Tom-bird' (Jerdon). Its second Nepali name, जोबराज (Sk. युवराज ) seems to be complimentary in recognition of its vocal powers as next to those of y, the Large Racket-tailed Drongo. 6. The Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo (26"): Black glossed with blue-green; under wing-coverts and axillaries with small white tips. Has no crest but the feathers of the forehead form a curious flat pad over the base and covering the greater part of the beak. This gives the bird an unfavourable aspect as compared with the smart bright look of the next. The lateral pair of tail-feathers run up to 21 inches of which the middle 12 inches is bare shaft and the terminal 4 to 5 inches is equally webbed on both sides. It is distributed over Northern India from Eastern Nepal to East Assam and is a bird of the forest. It has many and most varied notes, very full and melodious, and is an excellent mimic though not so good as the next. It is known as a (the fearful king of the Drongos; Lut more probably a corruption of भृङ्गराज). 7. The Assam Large Racket-tailed Drongo (26"): Is a denizen of the outer Himalayas from Nepal to Assam and the forests of Madhya Pradesh and South India. The whole plumage is black glossed with blue, the under wing-coverts and axillaries frequently tipped white. It wears a full, erect, and beautiful crest of long plumes, up to two inches, on the forehead, curv- ing backwards, each feather resembling a bow, curved sword or sickle. The outer pair of tail-feathers ineasure up to twenty inches of which the middle eleven or twelve inches is bare shaft and the terminal four inches is very narrowly webbed on the inner but broadly on the outer side and the broader web is twisted upwards. The two tail feathers, therefore, with a long shaft. It has been very properly named Black Drongo family) in Sanskrit and Hindi in recognition some appearance and musical talents. The terms, भिंग (कृष्ण, black), भिंगार and भिगारक in Prakrit and fभकार in Pali as names for aferfri (a particular bird) may belong to members of the Drongo family or to this bird (Sk. भृङ्गार, or भृङ्गराज). A few extracts from certain Sanskrit lexicons pertaining to these birds as also from others that give different meanings (and) of the same words are given below: (i) कलिङ्गः भृङ्गः धूम्याट: -अमरकोश, अभिधानचिन्तामणि भृङ्गः कलिङ्गः धूम्राटः (? धूम्याट) राजभृङ्गस्तु बुद्धिमान् वैजयन्तीकोश. गोप्रेरको भृङ्गराजो द्विपुच्छाग्रो वनप्रियः mble an axc. (King of the of its hand- 1. The harsh cry of Bhrigaraja is described as fire, and its softer notes as भिंगारक दीण कंदिय रवमु, in पाइय सद्द मरण्णवो... भिंग and भिगारक कुणालजातक, P.T.S. ed., vol. 3. p. 416. Drongos 65 सुचूडशीपों वाचालः सत्यवाक् स्याद् अथापर: भृङ्गः कलिङ्गो धूम्याटोऽपि-कल्पद्रुकोश. (ii) भृङ्गराजो मधुकरे (bee) मार्कवे (plant) विहगान्तरे --हेमचन्द्र, विश्वप्रकाश कलिङ्गो पूतीकर (plant) धूम्याटे (bird ) हेमचन्द्र. भृङ्गराजो भृङ्गरजो मार्कब: (plant) केशरञ्जनः (plant) – अभिधान चिन्ता ०. कलिकारः करजे स्याद् धूम्याटे पीतमस्तके विश्वप्रकाश. We may now refer to the great compliment paid to the Large Racket- tail in the litany of the Horse-sacrifice in VS. and TS. It is dedicated to Brhaspati, the singer (RV 10.36.5), in VS. 24.34 (brhaspataye vacaspataye paingarajah), and to Vák, goddess of speech, in TS. 5.5.13 (vace painga- rajah). The name Paingarája is probably derived from root fa, fra to sound, and thence fr and 4 (?) in Prakrit for Bhrngaraja.² Again, in TS. 5.5.17, शिल्पुट is allotted to Brhaspati (बृहस्पतये शिल्पुटः), and शिल्पुट, according to this a synonym for e, a bee (), and M. Williams also renders it as a 'large black bee', so that it is difficult to say whether forege of TS. stands for the large buzzing bee, or one of the sweet voiced Drongos, but cf. Marathi wge, a tail. The merits of the softer notes of the Black Drongo and the many musical calls merging into an excellent song of the Large Racket-tailed Drongo as a perfect mimic have been fully recognized in the Epics and the Puranas: (1) The Black Drongo, , with other birds and humming bees by the thousand, glorifies the forest: मत्तकोकिलभृङ्गाद्यैः कूजत्कलमनोहरम् कपोतशुकसङ्गीतम् उन्मत्तालिसहस्रकम् ।। Padma P., V. Ch. 69.64 (2) In addition to a very harsh metallic cry the u has an excellent repertoire of musical calls and whistles, and is justly reputed as a firm mimic imitating all the birds of the locality. Writing about it in the Fauna of British India, 2nd edn., S. Baker remarks: "Their notes are most musical, and, though they have no really connected song, one mellow. whistle follows another in such rapid succession that it is much the same in 1. A better reading, more easy to understand, of this half verse could well have been: कलिकार: स्याद् धूम्याटे करजे पीतमस्तके, the second quarter relating to a plant bearing yellow flowers at its top. The reading, as it is, has apparently misled the compiler of the Sabda-Kalpadruma to render ferre as the rare bird with a yellow head. (M.Williams renders free and stay correctly as certain plants.) Similarly, the compiler of the हिन्दी शब्द-सागर equates भृङ्गराज with भीमराज which however, has been described quite incorrectly-that it catches and swallows small birds as well. 2. Comp. पिंगल (पिङ्गल), पिगुल ( पिङ्गल), names of a particular bird (पक्षिविशेष ) and पिंगलिअ (पंङ्गलिक ) in पाइय सद्द महण्णवोप. For प and भ changed into फ in Prakrit, cf. फणस for पनस; फकवती for भगवती; रफस for रभस; रम्फा for रम्भा in Hemcandra's Prakrit Vyakarana, VIII. 4.325. 3. Sayana's rendering of Sitputa as a 'cat' does not suit the context at all. Birds in Sanskrit Literature effect....a fine male bird, for many years the unconfined pet of the Sepoys in one of the North Cachar stockades, sounded the reveille, every morning with absolute correctness and punctuality." The reveille, sounded on an army bugle, consists of three parts, each made up of 20 or 21 notes. The first and the third parts are identical in composition but the notes of the second are differently arranged. The reveille is full toned and very melo- dious, and the ability to repeat it to perfection combined with a time-sense bespeaks both considerable intelligence and wonderful powers imitation for the bird. No wonder, it has been described as afar (intelligent) in the Vaijayanti Kośa, and as a (a perfect mimic) in Kalpadru Kośa. It was held in great esteem by the ancient Indians and is still a valued pet with the aristocracy and bird-fanciers fearless and most amusing with its imitations of noises about the house and garden (Whistler). The Large Racket-tail, , is clearly mentioned as a mimic, and 66 a beautiful song-bird in the following verses: विहगो भृङ्गराजोऽयं शालस्कन्धसमास्थितः सङ्गीतमिव कुर्वाण: कोकिलस्यानुकूजति ।। एवं विचिवाः पतगा नानारावविराविण: ★ भृङ्गराजप्रमुदिताः सौमित्त्रे मधुरस्वराः॥ भृङ्गराजाधिगीतानि... वनान्युपवनानि च चकोरैः शतपतंश्च भृङ्गराजैस्तथा शुरुः कोकिलैः कलविश्व हारीतर्जीवजीवकः प्रियकैश्चातकंचव तथा अन्य विविधैः खगैः श्रोवरम्यं सुमधुरं कूर्जा द्भः.... 11 शुकैश्च भृङ्गराजश्व चित्रकैश्च समन्ततः कूजितान्तरशब्दैश्च सुरम्याणि च सर्वशः।

पारावतान्यभूतसारसचक्रवाक- दात्यूहहंसशुकतित्तिरिवहणां यः । कोलाहलो विरमतेऽचिरमात्रमुच्चैः भृङ्गाधिपे हरिकथामिव गायमाने । Rāmāyaṇa, II.95a.13¹, 1. This is from an interpolated chapter. Ibid. IV. 1.26-27. Ibid. VI. 39.11. Vayu P. Ch. 36.2-4. The highest compliment has been paid the bird in the following verse, in which recalling how a noisy congregation becomes still the moment a devotional song is begun, the poet says: M.Bh. III. 158.52-54. Bh. P. III. 15.18. 67 Drongos The discordant uproar of all other birds is hushed (i.e. no one cares to listen to them) as soon as the Bhrigardja begins to sing, as it were, the story of the Lord. The bird has been named Bhrigadhipa due to exigency of the metre but clearly as a synonym for Bhrigaraja. Commentators, and following them M. Williams, have rendered Bhrngädhipa as the large Black Bee and the reason for this bias lies in the fact that the Indo-Aryans became lovers of the Giant Honey-bee (Apis dorsata) some time after their arrival in India (RV mentions it as Saragha) and the Black Bee became an obsession with the later poets. In point of fact the humming of the Bees has no place at all in comparison with the loud sonorous notes of the birds named in the verse. The misinterpretation is also due to bhraga meaning primarily the Black Bee, and, by transfer after its shining black colour, the Black Drongo. Anyway, the real beauty of the above passage has often been lost to many readers of the Purana. Finally, it is a pity that not a single member of this family, not even the Bhṛngarāja (v.1. Paingarāja), finds a place in the works of the great Sanskrit poets. 16 WARBLERS 1. A great majority of the birds of this family are very small and plain coloured. "In fact most of them fall in the category of 'small brown birds without distinguishing features'.... It is impossible to identify many of these birds even with a plate and a good field description" (Smythies). They are all covered by the Hindi common name of gest or gr¹ which. may well be from Sanskrit g², gear, or rê (M. W.) all of which, at least the last two, seem to be after the little birds' single or double call notes (फुट्, फत् इति शब्दं करोति; cf. 'फो' for a bird' in some Himalayan dialects). and also perhaps therefore seem to be common Sanskrit names for all non-descript Warblers. In addition diminutives in the feminine genders like चटिका, चटकिका, पतङ्गिका, पुत्तिका (पुत्रिका, e.g. पुत्रिका afer) etc. formed from common names like, for a Sparrow, generally signify all insignificant small birds (Cf. "चटिका-क्षुद्रपक्षिका"-- हलायुध ). 2. Flycatcher Warblers like the Eastern Red-breasted and the Blue- throated Flycatchers are known as te in Bengal corresponding probably to Sanskrit fe which, besides being a term for any small bird, would also seem to be specific for the small-sized Warblers as a group according to the rule, “सामान्योऽपि विशेषे वर्तते" ---अभि० चिन्तामणि, and the name perhaps refers to the sound produced by the bird's bill whenever it snaps up an insect in the air. 3. The noisy and clever little Tailor-bird is probably from its 'towit, towit' or 'tuk-tuk' voice, and gfet or fears from its habit of placing its nest in a leaf-packet made by stiching up one or more leaves of low bushy plants. The names are from gz, gfer, 'a leaf packet' (cf. leaf and पत्रपुट and Hindi पुड़िया). Its Hindi name पतिया is from पa, a 1. The fi-- explains get as an onomatopoetic name and derives the verb gr from the hopping habit of these little birds. But it is most probably from Sansk. g, onomatopoetic for a weak sound or call, e.g. of a small bird. 2. फुनाझपष्टवाक्येन फायति शब्दायते इति --शब्दकल्पद्रुम फुः तुच्छवास्यम्-ibid. 3. Diminutives in the feminine gender are formed in certain cases according to the "स्त्री स्यात्काचिन्मणाल्यादिविवक्षाऽपचये यदि अमर, 3.5.7, 4. टुण्टु इति अव्यक्तेन शब्देन कायति शब्दायते- शब्दकल्प. The streaked Fantail Warbler frequenting grass-fields goes by the name of ggfrur in Hindi. It is thus probable that 69 Warblers aft (onomatapoetic) in Bengali. Compared to its size it has a very loud note and its occurrence in the wayside bushes and hedges has secured recognition for it as a bird of augury. T mentions the bird. as gfefe at 4.21 and as fere at 8.2.46. 4. The pretty little Ashy Wren-Warbler of our gardens, in towns and villages, dark ashy above and a beautiful shade of buff below, with a long graduated tail and a voice similar to that of the Tailor-bird, would also be टण्टुक. The पुरल्लिका of वसन्तराज 4.56, rendered as पिदिडी in the commentary, should be the Ashy Wren-Warbler if the etymology of the name from Prakrit पुरिल्ल (पौर) पुरभव (पा.स.म) whence 'पुरेभवा-पुरल्लिका' is correct. Sansk. is a garden in a town to which the term gfe should correspond. If so, gerer should be a little bird of a garden in a town. Pali afers for a kind of bird would aiso be the same. In a general way, however, it would certainly be looked upon as a tiny bird or fufeet as noted in the commentary on . Strictly speaking, however, fafest is a particular Munia (Art. 22). as 5. Among the Reed-Warblers Blyth's Reed-Warbler is known. fefe after its call note (F.B.I.) and as it is less aquatic than others of its class and is found in the long grass of the plains during the winter it has another Hindi name, gem (probably from gar a kind of कुश grass which it frequents). The Black-throated Weaver bird of reed beds is or 'Reed Weaver-bird' in Bengal so that if back-formations from vernacular names of some of the Warblers are permissible, the Reed-Warb- lers must have been known as rez. Indeed, the Indian Great Reed- Warbler goes by the name of 'Boora Jitti' (Boora-reeds, and Jitti or Jitta- the same as ) in Telugu. Similarly Warblers that frequent grass are known as 'Grass Sparrows' in different parts of the country. The Streaked Fantail-Warbler is known. as घासकी फुदकी in Hindi and the Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler is - (fr. , a kind of grass- देशीनाममाला) in Sind. All such birds must therefore have been तूणचटिका or तृणफुटकारी in the past just as we have तुणमयूर and शावलि for the Floricans (Art. 57), and are and à (kinds of grass) for the Red Munia (Art. 22). cf. names like 'Grass-finch' and 'Grass-quit' for certain American birds. these and others like them went by the name of टुण्टुक and तिन्तिडीक or] तिन्तिडी given as a bird name in दशापाद्यणादिवृत्तिः 3.39. The old scientific name for the Tailor-bird was Sylvia sutoria. It has a dark homy bill and has been incorrectly entered by M. Williams under tugg (yellow-billed).. This last is an adnoun for the Mallard Duck See Art. 84. Section C. 17 GOLD-CRESTS These tiny and inconspicuous birds keep to the higher branches of coni- fers in the Himalayas and are obviously very difficult of observation, and even if known they would simply be put down as for refer. 18 THE FAIRY BLUE-BIRD This is "one of the most beautiful birds known" and could certainly not have escaped observation by the ancients. The male is shining ultra- marine-blue above and black in other parts including the sides of the head and the fore-neck. It occurs in Eastern Himalayas and South India, and from its size and colour the term fe would include it. M. Williams, however has नीलच्छवी (च्छवि ?) for a kind of bird' and the कल्पद्रुकोश defines it as below: "नीलच्छवि कृष्णगलः स ग्रामचटकाकृतिः " "1 i.c., the trafr (Blue Beauty' fr. of beauty or splendour) has a black throat and is as big as the common Sparrow. These particulars and the significant name are fully descriptive of the bird and ff should be specific for it. It may be added that the second half of the verse in the lexicon:- "ककुभः ककुभाकारः स्थलजो रक्तपर्णक: " relates to a much larger bird (ger), viz., the Coucal or the Crow- Pheasant, which is larger than the Common Crow and it would be absurd to describe it as af. Nevertheless some commentators have cited the entire verse or its variant to explain the bird-name . See Art. 37-B for a further criticism of this half 19 ORIOLES 1. The Orioles are beautiful birds of golden-yellow and black plumage except for the Maroon Oriole which is maroon and black. Three varieties of the Oriole, the Golden, the Black-headed and the Maroon, occur in the North India, the last in the Himalayas only. They are strictly arboreal and keep to the tree tops, rarely descending to the ground. They are very active birds and, though shy and secretive, indulge in aerial games, following each other from tree to tree and darting through the foliage with their bright plumage flashing in the sun. Their voice is a loud mellow whistle of several notes which is heard "alike in garden and forest, greeting the dawn and saluting the parting day." The yellow Orioles of both the species "often build in the same tree as holds a nest of the Black Drongo. That this is by design rather than accident can scarcely be doubted, considering how frequent the occurrence is. It is certain also that by this means the birds must enjoy a degree of protection against marauders like crows and tree- pies-inveterate stealers of other birds' eggs. The King Crow will tolerate the proximity of his harmless dependents with complacency, but a crow has only to show himself i precincts of the nest-tree to be furiously set upon and beaten off by the valiant, 'kotwal' and his wife" (Salim Ali). They eat fruits, chiefly the berries of Peepul, bunyan and other fig trees. 2. The oldest names for the Golden Oriole are to be found in the Rgveda-(i) g which it shares with the Golden Eagle, and (ii) pro- bably also gife. The "g" in the following well known verses are no other than the Golden, or some other Eagle and the Golden Oriole, nesting together on a fig tree, the Oriole, of course, for protection: "ढा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षं परिषस्वजाते तयोरन्यः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वत्त्यनश्नन्नन्यो अभिचाकशीति ॥ यत्रा सुपर्णा अमृतस्य भागमनिमेषं विदयाभिस्वरन्ति इनो विश्वस्य भुवनस्य गोपाः स मा धीरः पाकमनाविवेश ।। यस्मिन्वृक्षे मध्वदः सुपर्णा निविशन्ते सुवते चाधिविश्वे तस्येदाहुः पिप्पलं स्वाइग्रे तन्नोन्नशद्यः पितरं न वेद ॥ RV 1.164, 20-22. On the high probability of a pair of Orioles sharing a bunyan or Peepul tree with a pair of Eagles I cannot do better than reproduce Col. D. Radcliff's 73 Orioles remarks quoted by Hume in his book, Nests and Eggs, 2nd. ed.-"It is always the case with the larger Falcons that their fellow tenants of a rock or a tree are safe from molestation and in the breeding season actually look to them for protection." That birds of prey permit smaller birds to nest in close proximity to themselves including even those on which they normally prey is now acknowledged to be almost a universal fact (S. Baker on the Laggar Falcon in F.B.I. 2nd Edn.). The Golden Eagle has been known occasionally to place its nest on a tree but there is reason to believe that in the long past he did more often than now, for one of his oldest names is शाल्मल or शालमनीस्य ( nesting on Bombax malabaricum ) :-- "सु शू पर्वण्यवसानं महाद्रौ कृत्वा नीडं शल्मलौ तं महान्तम् गुरुमन्तं गरुडं वैनतेयं पतविराजमवसे जोहवीमि ॥" Suparnadhyâya, 31.1 The Imperial, the Steppe and the Tawny Eagles breed as a rule on trees. including the Peepul in the plains of North India and everyone of them is a gut in the wider sense of the word. It is, therefore, more than probable, nay, almost a certainty, that the author of the above verses had not only seen a pair each of Eagles and Orioles nesting together in a peepul but had also observed how the Eagles kept away all marauders from the tree and the Orioles were happy under the protection thus afforded to them. These facts combined with the grandeur of the tall, leafy tree laden with fruit brought to his vivid imagination the similar situation obtaining before weak and dependent humans and their heavenly protector, and he, therefore, proceeded to illustrate the great spiritual truth with a parable drawn from nature. 3. With the growth of the civilisation and culture of the city as against the earlier life of farm and village even the learned Brahmaņas lost touch with nature and forgot the names and identity of many of the birds so beloved of their early ancestors. This divorce between the city, which now became the principal seat of learning, and the village was completed long before the time of g (c. 700 to 1000 B.C.), for he too does not say what exactly were the two particular birds mentioned in these verses. He and his successors, commentators including , undoubtedly knew that was an Eagle, but their difficulty was about the second fruit eating gi and they, therefore, intepreted the verses in the best way they could. The air was already thick at the time with Upanişadic speculation and philosophy of the and R, and the verses describing the two birds sharing a common tree came in very handy to illustrate that philosophy. Accordingly Sayaṇa begins their exposition with- "अन लौकिकपक्षिद्वयदृष्टान्तेन जीवपरमात्मानौ स्तुयेते" without pausing to explain the actual physical basis of the verses. As late as 1935 V. K. Rajwade of Poona also wondered what bird it could be that 74 Birds in Sanskrit Literature refused to eat fruit, and as he could not think of two Suparnas with such divergent habits in nature, he also agreed that the two birds were simple poetic imagery only for a and (See p. 1157 of his Marathi translation of the fred, Poona, 1935). In the absence of any guidance from Indian commentaries the Western interpreters of the Rgveda also had to content themselves with guess work and tried, each in his own way, to extract some sort of a hazy but always unsatisfactory meaning from the verses. In these attempts gi in the singular, dual and plural has been variously interpreted the Soma, the priests, day and night, stars, metres, Sun and Moon, rays of light, and so on. Ludwig goes so far as to say that the verses have scarcely anything in common except the word which alone is responsible for their being placed together; and Griffith remarks in sheer desperation, "A generally satisfactory explanation is scarcely to be hoped for" (see his foot-note to verse 21). Hymn 164 of which these verses form a triplet is full of riddles and it is quite likely that this also constitutes one, but looking to the fact that the second and the third verses based upon the picture presented in the first, expound a moral, it would appear that the first verse is, if at all, a very thinly veiled riddle while there is nothing mysterious about the other two. However that may be, an attempt is made here to offer a rational interpretation of the verses based upon the habits of the birds as described above. to the 4. In the first verse the word means 'in pairs,' i.e. with their mates, while the phrase "rer aferent" clearly refers two pairs of birds having their nests on the same tree. The use of the verb. (are born) in the third verse confirms this sense while the verb. arfirfer (looks around) is best understood by the behaviour of the female Golden Eagle at the nest described by Seton Gordon quoted in the World Digest for July 1946. "As she approaches and alights on the eyrie, then looks around her fiercely and defiantly before assuring herself that all is well, she makes a magnificent picture." Bonelli's Eagle also "proudly looks round" when on the nest. This verse, therefore, contains a statement of what the poet actually saw, viz. a pair of Eagles and a pair of Golden Orioles nesting together in friendly association on a Peepul tree and that while one kind of gate the sweet berries of the tree the other merely looked around. The Oriole is a fruit eater and the Eagle is not. 5. In the second verse the poet attributes human sentiment of thank- fulness to the Orioles and a consciousness on their part of the protection received from the larger bird.¹ It means that in the fig tree every discern- ing (fr) Oriole ceaselessly sings his grateful acknowledgment of his share of good things ("अमृतस्य भाग" refers to स्वादु पिप्पल and also hints at 1. The reader will kindly note here what Salim Ali says about the Oriole building desig- nedly under the protection of a fighting bird, and I am sure he cannot help admiring the keen and correct observation of the Vedic poet of nearly 4000 years ago. Orioles 75 freedom from untimely death) in these words-"Weak as I am, the wise. and powerful Lord and protector of the World (of birds, viz., afer) has graciously admitted me into this safe tree (अनाविवेश ). " 6. At this stage the poet recalling to his mind the entire dependence of man for food and protection upon the heavenly , the Sun, moulds the picture into a metaphor and proceeds to teach a moral in the third verse, viz., that men like the Orioles should be grateful to their heavenly protector for all the benefits received from him. Here f (plural) stands for 'the people', the fig tree for the Tree of Life or the mundane world, and the far for the Sun. The poet means to say that those, who live, multiply and prosper on the tree of Life but do not know (i.e. do not gratefully acknowledge) the protector, cannot really enjoy the sweet fruit high up on the tree (gifts of life). By implication they are worse than the Orioles who know and appreciate the truth. The idea is that a gift is fully appreciated when one knows the giver and is duly grateful to him for it. There can be no feeling of gratefulness and no true enjoyment of an anony- mous gift. In a word, the gifts of life are enjoyed all the better for the con- sciousness that they are a boon from the heavenly Father. The feelings of dependence and hopefulness go together and unless one is thankful for what one has received one has no right to expect further favours, and if there is no hope for the future one cannot enjoy what he has which is as good as if he has it not (). We have indeed, good reason to be thankful to the majestic Eagle and the beautiful little Oriole who have inspired such wonderful poetry. 7. ":f" in the following verse rendered as "birds of beaute- ous wing" by Griffith should again be no other than the Golden Orioles who greet the dawn with their sweet notes:- "वयः सुपर्णा उपसेदुरिन्द्रं प्रियमेधा ऋषयो नाधमानाः उपध्वान्तमूर्णुहि पूधिचक्षु मुमुग्धस्मान्निधयेव बद्धान् ॥” RV 10.73, 11. The sacrifice-loving sages (faqur :) eager to perform their morning worship pray to Indra like the Orioles greeting the dawn with their song; Dispel the darkness, fill our vision with light, and deliver us from the snares (imposed by darkness and which prevent us from getting busy with the sacrifice). 8. The identification of gif either as the Golden Oriole or the Yellow- headed Wagtail would seem to turn upon the correct meaning to be given to the word occurring in the second passage below:- (1) "शुकेषु मे हरिमाणं रोपणाकासु दध्मसि अथो हारिद्रवेषु मे हरिमाणं निदध्मसि ॥" RV 1.50, 12. 76 (2) "हारिद्रवेव पतथो बनेदुप सोमं सुतं महिषेवावगच्छयः ॥" Birds in Sanskrit Literature. RV 8.35, 7. The second verse refers to the habit of fore and af of eagerly taking to which they apparently love. Now , according to , is 'forest or water', but according to the Vedic Index of Macdonell and Keith, 'Vana' in the Rgveda and later denotes the forest and they do not men- tion 'water' as does. It is probably a meaning acquired by the word in later times. If, therefore, stands for 'forest' for would be the Golden Oriole, for it is a bird which delights and sports amongst trees of the forest and grove. The wild buffalo also lives in deep forest and if surprised in an open glade would immediately take to it. In this view the Oriole, clad in brilliant yellow, would be the bird par excellence to which along with the fawr the Red-breasted Paroquet having yellow wing patches and yellow-wattled Hill Myna, the yellowness of the skin caused by jaundice can best be transferred. If on the other hand must be taken in the sense of 'water' both f and af must. held to be fond of that element, and in this case the former would be the Yellow-headed Wagtail, the yellowest of Yellow Wagtails, which is cons- tantly associated with water and is rarely found at any distance from it. The buffalo too is known to be a water-loving animal, for he loves to wallow in tanks and pools during the hot hours of the day. 9. The first verse above occurs (1.22, 4) where Sāyaṇa translates in his commentary on the frega, 26,18 renders it as for corruption in the text as it has come down above synonyms for gifere are the same as the later ita or for the Yellow Wagtails in the to us both the a figer (Art. 26), and looking to the traditional treatment for jaundice with ceremonial washings it is just possible that gf is the Yellow-headed Wagtail. But the interesting historical fact adduced by Griffith in a note to RV 1.50, 12 that the Romans too had a fanciful notion that jaundice was cured if the patient looked the Icterus bird, and the bird probably belonged to the Starling family, supports the identification made in the preced- ing paragraph. The article on 'Icterus' in the Ency. Brit. 11th edn., shows that the Icterus of classical authors is generally identified with the European Golden Oriole. The name Oriole is from the French 'Loriot' L'oriol, from Lat. oriolum-aurum, gold. James Moray Brown also makes the statement : "Loriot, a bird that, being looked upon by one that hath the yellow jaundice cures the person and dies himself". (Stray Sport, vol. I, p. 158, William Blackwood and Sons, 1893). The belief would thus appear to be part of the common heritage of both branches of the Indo-Germanic peoples unless it travelled from one to the other after their separation. If, therefore, gif was originally the Oriole, it is probable that by the time offer the name had come to be transferred to or mistaken for the Yellow Wagtail. with slight modifications in the a far as the bird, and Darila fers. Allowing Orioles 10. Turning to some Pali and Prakrit sources including lexicons, which I have consulted, we have the following series of closely related. names for the Orioles:- 77 (i) पिलग (पिलक), a kind of bird in अर्धमागधी, which stands very close to Hindi for the Oriole, and Sansk. fer in the following: "पिप्पलस्तैलहरणात्, फलस्तैन्यात् पिपीलकः || भारतमञ्जरी, शान्तिपर्व, 1676. This means that a person stealing oil would be reborn as the पिप्पल bird and one stealing fruit as the bird (पि-पी-तं इति rafa?). It may be repeated that the Orioles are "great fruit catcrs". (ii) In the story of king war, who was a , i.e., who under- stood the language of birds and beasts, related by in the gf section of the above work the male and female birds whose conversation the king overheard bear the names पिपोलक and पिपीलका, (iii) पिपीलिय, a kind of bird in the Jain प्रश्नव्याकरण 3.1 is evidently the same as पिपोलक. (iv) अंबक मद्दरी, a bird in the अंगुत्तर निकाय, महावग्य, 111.64.6 (P.T.S.): "सय्यचापिअंबक मद्दरी फुस्सक रवितं रविस्तामि।" Here फुस्सक is the Cuckoo and अंबक मद्दरी (अंबक the mango tree; मद्दी fr. मर्दल, a little drum) the little drum of the mango tree' which is obviously identical with Tamil मामकोइल (आम्रकोकिल, Mango-Cuckoo) and (Mango-bird) for the Black-headed Oriole of Ceylon. The common Indian Oriole with identical habits and call-notes does not occur there. (v) अंबाकपीलिक (v.1. अंबाकपिलिक, अंबाकिपिलिक) occurs as the last item in a series of bird-names (including g a bat, regarded as a bird both in India and Persia) contained in the Fifth Pillar Edict (Delhi Topra) of Emeperor Asoka published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicum, Vol. I, pp. 125-127 & 224. The name has been incorrectly syllabified and misunderstood. by the various translators including Dr. Sir R. G. Bhandarkar, Shri Michelson and Prof. B. M. Barua.¹ 11. The names in (iv) and (v) above clearly establish the identity of the first element अंबार of अंबाकपीलिक and माम or मरम्बल of मामकोइल or with of , and, therefore, simply means the 'mango tree'. Similarly the second element fers of safer is the same. as अर्धमागधी, पिलग and पिपीलक of क्षेमेन्द्र and Hindi पोलक for the Oriole. अंबाक पीलिक is thus a shortened form of or corruption from अंबाकपिपीलक, i.e., a 1. Inscriptions of Asoka, Pt. II (1943). 78 Birds in Sanskrit Literature bird that utters a triple ft note from a mango tree, and in this sense it is fully parallel to अंबक मद्दी. 12. The Indian Orioles are local migrants, and finding the winter of the Punjab and the Uttar Pradesh too severe, disappear from these areas in October. The Black-headed variety continues to live U. P. but it is silent during the winter bird Calendar for India-Douglas Dewar). "With the ripening of the mangoes in spring the Indian Oriole arrives in Northern India. To that circumstance, combined with the greens and yellows of the two sexes to the fruit and leaves of their favourite tree, is due the popular Anglo-Indian name of Mango-bird" (Whistler). A bird of entirely arboreal habits, the Oriole naturally takes to the dense foliage of mango trees and sings its melodious notes from there and hence the ancient names of and safe for it. I need hardly add that this association of the bird with the mango tree is not a recent Anglo-Indian discovery but was a well known fact in North India and Ceylon more than two thousand years ago, and it is highly probable that the Anglo-Indians got the name from South India or Ceylon. For the still unsolved bird-names in the Edict of Asoka see Art. 37-B for er, and Art. 84 for असुन and नन्दीमुख. 13. We may now take up the bird the Ramayana and the question of the confusion caused by the similarity of the name fr with frf (an ant). The later scribes of the grand the authors of हरिवंत, मत्स्यपुराण and पद्मपुराण, having missed the identity of पिपीलक (fem. पिपीलका) as a bird, changed the spelling to पिपीलिक (fem. पिपीलिका). The authors of the above Purăņas also recast the story of the pair of birds hinted at in the Rāmāyaṇa into one of a pair of ants! The earliest version of a king occurs in a brief reference to the father of queen Kaikeyi in the Rāmāyaṇa:- “सर्वभूतरुतं तस्मात् संजज्ञे वसुधाधिपः तेनं तियंग्गतानां च भूतानां विदितं वचः ॥ ततो जृम्भस्य शयने विस्ताद् भूरिवर्चसः पितुस्ते विदितो भावः स तव बहुधाऽसत् ॥" 2.35, 19-20. जृम्भ (having a far-reaching voice; cf. "सुखश्रवाः मङ्गलतूनिस्वनाः व्यजृम्भन्त" रघुवंश 3.19) has been rendered differently by the commentators: (i) पिपीलिका fr, a kind of ant, by Govindaraja apparently misled by the later version of the story in the Purānas and हरिवंश, and (ii) जृम्भकाव्य पक्षी by Rāma in his frer commentary (Bombay Edn.) and he explains fi as , of a golden colour. The use of the expression freare makes it clear that had an audible call, and this together with the fact that it belonged to the class of birds or beasts (fl) at once puts out of court the suggestion that it was an ant, for ants have no voice at all and belong to the org class. Moreover, no lexicon gives for an ant. Nevertheless the interpretation of as fifa (masc. fff) is particularly significant in view of what the terms fife and Orioles 79 Prakrit ff are now found to mean, viz., the Golden Oriole. It follows that the oldest synonym of was the f bird. Poet has spelt the masc. and fem. forms of the word correctly as already stated above but others mistaking them for ants proceeded to embroider the old story with minute details of a love quarrel between a pair of sugar-loving ants. This later version is found in ब्रह्मदत्तचरितम् in हरिवंश, 1.24 where the female is described as 'an angry little ant' (yar your frtfest), and in the gr, ch. 20 where the pair becomes and the female is:- "सुवर्णवर्णा सुश्रोणी मज्जूका चारुहासिनी सुलक्ष्यनेतरसना गुडशकंरवत्सला ।” The पद्मपुराण also has a similar story about king विक्रान्त in सृष्टिखण्ड ch. 10. 14. In the following verse from the Mahabharata frf: is clearly a mistake for fasteren: :- "फलं वा मूलकं हृत्वा अपूपं वा पिपीलिकाः”.... 13.111, 100. Here the unnecessary plural is worth noting. had the correct reading before him and he gives fr: (singular). They also has the correct spelling पूपं हत्वा पिपीलक" (see शब्दकल्पद्रुम under कर्मविपाक ). The name, as suggested above is probably after the bird's call-notes but in view of the fact that its other names like and are based on the golden colour of its plumage, it is quite likely that frifers for 'a kind of gold' has something to do with the change of spelling from fr to पिपीलिक (cf. Prakrit पिपीलिय) and this in turn helped the sordid ant to displace the glorious Oriole in the later forms of the original story. पिलग or पिलक in अर्धमागधी and पीलक in Hindi are the direct descendants of पिपलक with one of first two letters cut out, and the apparent affinity of the surviving form with Hindi for 'Yellow' would seem to be accidental. 15. The Orioles are mentioned in Purâņa literature under the names, काञ्चन, चामीकर, and सुग्रीव काञ्चन in reference to their golden yellow or maroon-red plumage. Of these the first two are for the Golden Oriole and the third for the Black-headed (also black-necked) Oriole and the black-headed Maroon Oriole of the Himalayas and the adjoining plains. The epithet refers to their black throat and neck in the same way god far (of the black throat, because of the poison stored in it) bears the same name. Dried lac of a reddish-brown colour is described as ff in AV 5.5, 6 and the dark brown Golden Eagle is f (Art. 52-A) so that the Maroon Oriole also very properly shares the name with his brother the Black-headed (yellow) Oriole. Ta is one of the birds at a hermitage in पद्मपुराण:- 1. Cf. also काञ्चनी-हरिद्राकारकम् the red ochre and काञ्चनार Bauhionia Variegata with pink and purple flowers. Birds Sanskrit Literature The "पक्षिणः काञ्चनप्रख्यान् नानाशब्दसमाकुलात्" उत्तर खण्ड, 16.23 mentions it as the sweet voiced me, and also describes its behaviour at the sight of poison:- 80 "खगैर्मधुररावंच चारुचामीकरप्रभैः” 136, 15; "चामीकरोऽन्यतो याति, मृत्युं कारण्डवस्तथा" ... 220, 20. The Black-headed Orioles (maroon or yellow) occur in the Himalayas according to the वायुपुराण:- "सुग्रीवकाञ्चनरवः कलविस्तैस्तथा" 36, 4. The gives for for 'a kind of bird', and looking to its derivation from fपज्जलं (हरिद्राभे—विश्वप्रकाश ) or पिज्जालं, 'gold', it can only be the Oriole. The name seems to be allied to Hindi fr and for for the Black-headed variety. Our classical poets have been more than partial to birds like the f , and, and it is a pity that the common and charming Orioles should have been completely ignored. 20 GRACKLES OR HILL-MYNAS 1. The Grackle is popularly known as the Hill- or the Talking Myna. Apart from its glossy black plumage its distinctive features are fleshy yellow wattles on the head, bare yellow skin on the sides of the face, and orange yellow bill and legs. 2. In the Rg-Veda (1.50,12) it has been called from , 'causing a cicatrix' (also perhaps a cicatrix or healed wound) in reference to the wattles and the bare skin that characterize the bird. These features are supposed to be healed scars as it were. Its later name वरण्डा s also derived from, a boil or pimple on the face. There are other bird-names as well formed on the same lines, e.g., the Black Ibis is called from, a scar, because of the bare and pimpled head of the bird and the Red-wattled Lapwing सदालूता (लूता चमंत्रणे- धन्वन्तरि carrying permanent pimples on the face ) :- "टिट्टिभी पीतपादश्च सदालूता नुजागर: # धन्वन्तरि निषन्दु, means 'the dart of the god 3. रोपण also means an arrow i.e., शलाका which latter has formed the basis for its name or simply war in the Lexicons. The name of Love' because the bird was aught professional trainers (cf. arfer ser as one of the 64 Fine Arts) to repeat little 'bons mots' and love-phrases to remind busy aristocrat or king, passing through his age or harem, of the undying love for him of its (bird's) lady-patron, or to invite him to a particular queen. I doubt if the Vedic name was derived from in the sense of 'an arrow', but - शलाका is certainly comparable with "कामशल्यामिषुं" in AV. 3,25, 2. 4.. The Grackle or Talking Myna was also known in Sanskrit by the name 'मदनसारिका'. Names like कादम्बरी (कद्+अम्बर, black-plumaged) and the allied couples like, gft and areT ('love messenger', and 'one-exerting for a lover' respectively), and (giving pleasure), and (a good talker) for the bird are merely lexical pedantry. They seem to have been invented for use in a double sense in puzzles (f) and puns (श्लेष). 5. It shares also the name wf (v.1 arfer) with the Common Myna (Art 21), and which of the two birds is intended in a given passage must be made out from the context. fr as a talking cage-bird is the Birds in Sanskrit Literature Grackle, but as a bird of ill omen, or a noisy one, it is the Common Myna. To cite but one example of each from the रामायण - 82 “नूनं हि लालप्यते सीता पञ्जरस्थेव शारिका" - 5.13, 16 "वीचीकूचीति वाश्यन्तः शारिकावेश्मसु स्थिताः पतन्ति ग्रथिताश्चापि निजिताः कलहैषिणः" 6.35.33 The second passage is a perfect picture of the कलहप्रिया सारिका, the noisy or quarrelsome Common Mynas often given to fighting with their own kind. 6. The beautiful Grackle learns to speak with great facility and accu- racy and was naturally a favourite cage bird of the ancients. The gerar शारि of वाज. संहिता the Grackle, “सरस्वत्यै शारिः पुरुषवाक" 24.33 Classical literature is full of references to its power of speech. One, for example, is represented as preaching to her Parrot-friend about the great- ness of God Siva: “पठन्ती सारिका सारं शुकं सम्बोधयत्यहो अपारावारसंसारसिन्धुपारप्रदः शिवः” स्कन्दपुराण, काशीखंड, 1.8.72 It was also taught to repeat didactic and religious catch phrases: “शिक्षापदोपदेशदोषोपशमशालिनीभिः सारिकाभिरपि धर्मदेशनां दर्शयन्तीभिः..." हर्षचरित, उच्छास, 8 f For another example, see Art. 38. The enfant af of the drama of is made to play an exaggerated role and is represented as possessed of an extraordinary memory and able to repeat a long conversation overheard by her but once all of which is simply poetic fiction. Lexicons have perhaps borrowed the name anfft for a Grackle from this work. 7. Another bird of this group is the Spotted-winged Stare, resembling the Mynas in shape and habits. It occurs in flocks and associates with the Grackles and other Mynas, the birds of a flock keeping up a constant chattering twitter. They are very restless and are always on the move. They breed in the lower and outer Himalayas as far east as Nepal and visit the adjacent plains in the winter. This Stare is known as ge or gfer in Hindi. It is the पुलीका ( v. 1 पुलिका) of मैना. संहिता, 3.14.5 and पूली (मूली appears to be a misprint) and writ of the wer. The name is probably derived from the Dravidian gfa (cf geeft, Panther देशीनाममाला) because of its spotted plumage, and it is from this sense that I holdt (we, a tiger) Grackles or Hill-Mynas 83 to be another but later name for it. Being a noisy bird it has been very properly named for the female relations of the gods implying a subtle satire upon their garrulous, fidgety and quarrelsome habits: - “पुलीका देवजामिभ्यः" -मैत्रा. संहिता, 3.14.5. The बाज संहिता, 24.24 reads कुलीका in place of पुलीका and as कुलि also means a Panther or Tiger in another South-Indian language (the Kannada) too must mean the Spotted-winged Stare. 21 STARLINGS AND MYNAS 1. These birds are closely allied to the Grackles, a fact recognised by the ancients who gave them all the common name. of सारिका. Even the Common and the Jungle Babblers have been regarded as varieties. of the Myna and this accounts for the mixed synonyms found in f कल्पनु and राजनिघण्टु where names found in different earlier Mss have been put together, but a close study of the names shows that they are not synonyms for one or two birds only. All Starlings and Mynas are gregarious and noisy by habit. 2. Starlings are glossy black birds, looking as if oiled and more or less spotted finely with buff. The whole plumage is iridescent with a high gloss of red, purple, green and blue (Whistler). The oldest names for them are or gre (spotted) and der (as if smeared with oil and, therefore, glossy). gris one of the birds required at the Horse-Sacrifice and has been named for the God of Fire:- "अग्नये गृहपतयें पारुष्णान्”–V.S. 24.24 Fire is pode (whose way is black', as a forest-fire leaves a black track) and Whistler's description of a flock of these black birds mov- ing on the ground fully explains this selection: "The chief characteristic of the flocks is hurry; they feed on the ground...., and all the time the flock advances with a bustle and hurry, not hopping but with a quick purposeful step the birds in the rear frequently flying over to settle in front of the lea- ders". No further comment is necessary. 3. According to an oil-thief becomes a or Starling in his next birth (“तेस तेलपक: खग:” मनु, 12-63). This त लपक appears as तँलपायी in याज्ञवल्क्य ("तसहत्तलपायी स्यात्" 211) and in महाभारत 13.111,111. सारिका and defer in the following are the Grackle and Starling respectively:- "गृहे पारावता धन्याः शुकाध सहसारिकाः गृहेष्वेते न पापाय तथा वै तैलपायिकाः" 1. तैलपायिका at 13.104, 114. M.Bh., 13.104, 114. 85 Starlings and Mynas and for signify the spotted Cockroach, which feeds on oil, as well as the Spotted Munia (Art. 22B). In Hindi the Starlings are known as तिलोरी or तेलियामैना (Oily Starling ). Both पारुण and तलपक therefore denote the Himalayan and Finsch's Starlings which are common in North India, 2 4. The name wfe (from arc, spotted, or a colour combination- "नीलपीतादणश्शारो.."वैजयन्ती; cf. पाहण्ण) is again the above while the Common Myna, which is unspotted, is enfer. This latter has earned additional epithets like कलहप्रिया, कलहाकुला etc. and वैजयन्ती has "वाचाला मुबरा enfe" because of their quarrelsome and noisy nature, and it is for this reason that they are held to be inauspicious birds in 8.17. A verse descriptive of the quarrelsome nature of ef has already been quoted from the रामायण in Art 20. Adnouns like पीतनेवा, चिवनेका, पीतपादा etc. are merely descriptive and apply equally to the Common Myna and the Grackle, and the last even to the Red and Yellow-wattled Lapwings. The Bank Myna is similar to the Common Myna except for the red of the bare skin round the eye. It is often found in company with the latter and would naturally go by the same name, viz., enfer, though in Hindi it is distinguished as as it lays its eggs in holes made in earthen banks over running water. It may well have been renfes in Sanskrit. 5. The यक्षकुणपी of मैत्रायणी संहिता, 3.10.3 is the Common Myna according to सायणाचार्य कुणपी is the बिसारिका or the Pied Myna in मेदिनी and विकाण्डशेष but this bird is not known to enter human dwellings, so that t cannot be this Myna. The Common Myna, on the other hand, is the "commonest and most familiar bird about human habitations-whether in the heart of a bustling city or far out on the countryside" and fitted "admirably for life of commensalism with man" (Salim Ali). "Always perky and self-confident", it is the only bird, next to the House Crow, most likely to enter the sacred precincts of the mar and befoul the floor or peck at offerings arranged there for a sacrifice. f being a contemptuous name for the Pied Myna, the Common Myna has been very appropriately called agit. The nanie teret for the Common Myna has already been considered in Art. 6, under Babblers. 6. The beautiful Brahminy Myna has the "top of the head, including a long bushy crest, black; the sides of the head, the whole of the neck and the entire lower plumage rich buff." It is, therefore, the affer (" स्यात्पीतलोहितः" वैजयन्ती i.e. reddish fawn or buff) and कवरी ( केशविन्यास) of the list. This Myna is known as in Hindi for which a respectable The equation परोष्णी तलपायिका of अमरकोश is evidently a homonymous one applying to (1) the starling birds and (2) the cockroach insect, as is clear from the fact hat repeats it in its lists of both birds and insects. 86 Birds in Sanskrit Literature ancestry can be traced to wg for 'a kind of bird' in Sanskrit :- "शङ्करा नाम परिव्राजिका शङ्करा नाम शकुनिका तच्छीला च तस्यां उभयं प्राप्नोति – "पतञ्जलि महाभाष्य परिवाजिका is पब्बाइया in Prakrit and hence पबइ, for this smallest of Mynas. When we recall its black head and crest and the fawn colour of its body-plumage we are reminded of the काषाय वस्त्र of a बालश्रमणा or कात्यायनी and cannot but admire the imagination of the first man who gave this excellent name to the bird. rg is thus a very old name for the Brahminy Myna which is a local migrant (farfar er). The name also indicates that unlike the common Myna it is an auspicious bird and the English name 'Brahminy Myna' for it is very expressive. It has a soft voice and pleasant song. 7. The Rosy Pastor is of a rose-pink colour with a black head orna- mented with a long bushy crest. The upper breast, wings and tail are also black. This Starling moves in flocks and the birds feed on insects and berries, and "are invariably present on silk cotton flowers ganging themselves on the sugary nectar they exude, and are truculent towards all other species visiting the tree on the same quest" (Salim Ali). It is, therefore, the मधुसालिया (Skt. मधुसारिका ) explained as सुवण्ण सालिक (Skt. सुवर्ण सारिका, the beautifully coloured myna) by the commentator in fefe , No. 511. The name gerfor refers to the birds' love of the nectar () of flowers. Again, if the name does not belong to the Brahminy Myna, the Rosy Pastor is the only other bird of the present group to claim it in its own right, or it may be a name common to both the birds possessing a long black crest. 8. जाण्ट (perhaps, connected with जटा or झुण्ट) is a kind of bird according to and in Prakrit means 'short and erect hairs' (लपूद्ध्वकेशाः – देशी नाममाला). The Jungle Myna is झोंटी मैना in Hindi and enfer, therefore, appears to be its Sanskrit name in reference to the tuft of short erect feathers on its forehead. #TZT Hindi means "dishevelled hair" so that all these words seem to be allied to ge or a bush. 9. The enfere is described as 'short-crested, dirty-feeder and fre- quenting damp reedy places':- "शरमल्लो क्षुद्रचूडो गूयलक्तच साल्विकः ।" - शब्दकल्प. It is known as गुये सालिक in Bengal, the name being derived from 'गूयलक्त साल्विक It is clearly the Pied Myna for which चित्राङ्गी (pied) in कल्पनु, कुणपी and 3. 3.2.14. 4. The name is in line with aferr (milk-maid) for the Magpie Robin, afa (washer-maid) for the White Wagtail, and af (oil-maid) for the black Red Starling-all in Hindi. The dress of a M.W.) is of a fawn or buff colour rit (affarer "बदन्ति कात्यायनिकां धूतकाषायवाससम्"-quoted in the commentary at p. 67 of हर्षचरित Starlings and Mynas •वि सारिका (compare बिटूचर for the tame Pig) in विकाण्डशेष are other names. The epithet कलहप्रिया is on a par with गोराटी and हहोलिका and all these are equally applicable to the Starling, the Common Myna, the Pied Myna and the Babblers. 87 10. A kind of Myna, named var f, is a victim for Goddess. •सरस्वती according to the तैत्ति संहिता: 5 "सरस्वत्यै शारि: श्येता पुरुषवाक्" means 'reddish white' and the only Myna that can be so described is the Grey-headed Myna. This is dark Grey above and rufous below, palest towards the throat and deepest towards the tail (Whistler). It could probably be trained to talk. The पुरुषवाक् शारि of the बाज. संहिता' is evidently the Grackle. 5. 5.5.12. 6. 24.33. 22 WEAVER-BIRDS AND MUNIAS A. WEAVER-BIRDS 1. Weaver-Birds are very Finch-like both in size and appearance and the males are gaudily dressed in rich yellow particularly at breeding time. They are rather noisy birds and have a twittering call ending with a whistle. Their beauty and the art of building fine weather-proof nests account for their being regarded as a kind of fag in Sanskrit (See Art. 23A), and the correct name for them is f (yellow-headed sparrow "कलविवस्त्वसौ पीतमुण्ड: "चंजयन्ती). M. Williams has, however, mixed up पीततुण्ड (-US), the Mallard Duck, with tags, the Weaver-Bird. "Weaving is a passion with these birds, and a pair of them work in complete co-operation, the male outside (the partly built nest) passing the ends of the grass through the wall of the structure to the female inside, who threads them back to him, till the beautifully woven structure is complete; it is secured by the serrated edges of the strips of grass and is almost too tough to be torn apart by the hands" (Smythies). The nest is a retort-shaped structure of woven grass with a long tubular passage opening downwards. This description of the habits of the bird fully justifies the following names for it:- (1) ( 2 ) कौलीक from कौलिक, a weaver or कुलिक, an artisan, corresponding to Hindi aur from to weave; चञ्चुसूची or सूचीमुख (Prakrit सुईमूह) from the bird's beak being used like a needle; and (3) सुगृह (v.1. स्वगृह ?) i.e. having an excellent and well protected nest. 'सुमूह' (Prakrit सुहर) has been defined by हेमचन्द्र in देशीनाममाला as a kind of sparrow which builds a nest opening downwards ("यस्या अधोमुखं नीदं भवति"). कल्पद्रुकोश has – "सूचीचञ्चुः पीतशीर्ष: सुगृहश्च". The habit of these cheerful birds of keeping up all day long their conver- sational chatter has won for them the epithet of कलिकार (कलि कलई करोति- -noisy; "कलिकार: धूम्याटे पीतमस्तके" विश्व, हेम. and मेदिनी पीतमस्तक i.e. पीतमुण्ड ). 2. As the best architect among birds, it is dedicated to, the Divine Architect, under the name of कौलीक in : "त्वष्ट्रे कौलिकान्” वाज. सं. 24, 24 unquestionably the best selection for this deity. Weaver-Birds and Munias 5. The पञ्चतन्त्र mentions it as सूचीमुख in वानरयूथ सूचीमुख कथा told in the fमनभेद section and कथासरित्सागर at 10.4,200 काबूक is yet another name for it and it may have something to do with the male bird's donning a yellow cap on his head ( fr aquifer) during the breeding season, or again with his habit of suspending the nest from the branch of a tree where it overhangs water (). The Black-throated Weaver-Bird which nests in tall grass or reeds is शरबया (Sanskrit शरकौलीक) in Bengali. 4. The name गुहकारी in मनुस्मृति, 12, 66 and विष्णुस्मृति, 44, 36, if correctly interpreted as a kind of bird' by commentators, रामचन्द्र and सर्वंश नारायण, appears to be the same as (i) for the Weaver-Bird which uses. various materials in the construction of its nest. This fits in very well with the punishment awarded to a person who steals miscellaneous petty goods. Otherwise also the context would seem to demand a bird. ger as an insect is the Solitary Wasp (genus Eumenes) commonly known as the Mud or Potter Wasp which uses only mud for its nest. The fafar (?) bird (v.1. सुहिल, cf. प्राकृ. सुहर ) of किचिद जातक, 321 which had a rain-proof nest was apparently a Weaver-Bird, as the story is the same as the one from Pañcatantra noted above. 89 B. MUNIAS The Munias are small birds, and like the majority of Warblers would go by the general name of afer, gfast, or gfre (cf. Pali and Pra- krit पुत्तक, पोतक, a little child and a young or small bird) but some have indeed specific names given to them. For example, the Spotted Munia is परोष्णी (fr. परुष, spotted, a little spotted bird; "चटिका विशेष:"- शब्दापंचिन्तामणि. cf. पृष्णि, पहष्णी, a speckled cow) The equation – "परोष्णी तेलपायिका" अमर is said to efer to the spotted Cockroach only but it may well be a homonymous equation referring to the Cockroach as well as the spotted little bird-both of an oily brown colour. In any case the names have been extended to this bird as well, as it is known in Hindi under the name of afarafat. It may also be recalled here that similar names obtain for the spotted Starling, viz., पारुण्ण, तैलपक and तैलपायो (Art. 21). gives us yet another name for this bird, viz., ger (ch. 8, 46), and the commentator explains it as a dark-coloured bird. with white spots ("कृष्णवर्णा लघुचटिका श्वेत- far-garen") which agrees very well with the White-spotted chocolate- brown of this Munia. ger in gent means 'a spot.¹² small 2. The White-throated and the White-backed Munias are faff or पिरिली (बृहत्संहिता, 85, 20 & 44; बसन्तराज, 4, 56 ) in Sanskrit (?) corres- 1. Commentator शूलपाणि on याज्ञवलय, 3.214 aho renders गुहकारी as a particular bird. 2. d. "कुसुमंञ्चिविता मुगा:" for the spotted deer, Rāmāyala, 2.99,13 where कुसुम is synonymous with ger and means a white spot. Birds in Sanskrit Literature ponding to पिरिडी in Prakrit and पिदड़ी, पीदड़ी, in Hindi. These appear to be Prakrit words related to sfcafe, a hedge (from Sanskrit fe and af, a hedge) and have been applied to these birds because they frequent hedges in villages. The name may well be from Prakrit feft, a cluster, from the bird's habit of moving in flocks. They are also free, or (from Skt. refer) in Hindi. 3. The Red Munia appears to be सुनार कलविदु (from सुनाल with ल changed to ₹ sce शब्दकल्पद्रुम "सुनार: कलबिङ्क"विश्व and मेदिनी) and सेन्य which latter is one of the names for Sparrow-like birds listed in the इंजयन्ती - 90 "चटको वर प्राटक: बलिभुक् कलविश्व सेव्यस्तिलककष्टकः" Now both gar and are varieties of Andropogon grass growing near water, and t is chiefly in these and similar tall grasses that the Red Munia roosts and breeds. g again, in the sense of a red water-lily, may refer to the red colour of the male bird. These facts make it highly probable that सुनार and सेम्य in the sense of a कलविङ or चटक, are no other than the beautiful Red Munia. has an additional signi- ficance attached to it, viz., the birds so named are worth keeping as pets, and these birds are indeed in great favour throughout the country as cage- birds, a number of them being kept together in a single cage. The pretty male is known as T ('red' and also 'a little boy') and the female. मुनियां (मुनी a little girl, fem. of मुन्ना) in Hindi, names which fully corres- pond to Sanskrit gas and gfarer for small children and birds; cf. er:fi:; पोती पक्षिणां स्वयपत्ये" शब्दार्थ चिन्तामणि पोतकी, the Indian Robin Prakrit पोबाई from start, a little bird; and Pali g, a young bird. Although no Sanskrit dictionary gives gars or go for a little bird, we have numerous instances of expressions like चातक पोत, चातक शिशु, or शकुन्त बालक in literature. gferer or gfer in the following stands for a tiny bird: “पुलाका इव धान्येषु पुत्तिका इव पक्षिषु" --म.भा. 12, 181, 7 "पुलाका इव धान्येषु पूतिका इव पक्षिषु मशका इव मर्त्येषु येषां धर्मो न कारणम्”–पञ्चतन्त्र, काकोलूकीय, 97. The mention of , a winged insect, in the last verse considerably strengthens the meaning of gferer or gfare as a tiny bird, and the Pali form gf (fem. of g) appears to have been purposely used in a contemptuous sense for gf, a little bird. It is highly impro- bable that the expert author of should have drawn upon two equally insignificant insects, the white ant and the mosquito, for two out of three similes. Again, gf as an alternative reading for fr is possible only through Prakrit fire, a child, and the term corresponds in formation to for a Bulbul (Art. 6). 4. We have already considered for the Fan-tail Flycatcher in reference to its dancing habit (Art. 11) and, as the active little Red Weaver-Birds and Munias Munias, when caged as pets, keep on dancing as it were within the cage, they have been given the name of लट्वाका, a diminutive of लट्वा. सढ़वा as a musical instrument, probably a boy's whistle, is perhaps so named because of the whistling notes of the birds that go under the names of ar and लट्वाका (“लट्वा क्षुद्रचटका"-उणादि भोजीयानि कटका is a misprint) लट्वा also means the deep orange-red safflower and the little Red Munia may well have been so named after the colour of the male. In the referans (No.357), a small bird, called wefar (Pali for are), figures prominently. It placed its nest on the ground in grass-land and when the nest was in danger of being destroyed by a roving herd of wild elephants the little mother-bird lifting her wings in salutation makes a pathetic appeal to the leader not to kill (inadvertently or otherwise) her still unfledged young ones (gr). (This verse is quoted in Art. 45.) Again, a ref, singing freely or fearlessly in its cage (enfer), is mentioned in a proverb in दीघनिकाय :- "लटुकिकापि खो अंबट्ट सके कुलावके कामलायिनी होति” 91 P.T.S. Edn. 1.91. The Red Munia frequently builds its nest in tall grass very low or even on the ground (Whistler). It is thus more than probable that wefent of the Jataka, i.e. war, is the Red Munia. The root word being or सट्य (लट् बाल्ये, लद्-लल-लालन; लट्वा a dancing girl) the name लट्वाका perhaps stands close enough to Sansk. सेव्य (लालन योग्य) and Hindi लाल (the red colour and a little boy, cf. Sansk. a). 3. The name was also used for the Rufous Short-toed Lark-Art. 27, and as none of the short-toed Larks is a breeding bird of India proper the Jataka story mentioned here cannot refer to any of them. 23 FINCHES AND BUNTINGS A. FINCHES 1. This family includes a very large number of birds recognizable from their short massive bills, more or less forked tails, and the general resem- blance they bear to the common House Sparrow. Many species are to be found in the higher Himalayas though quite a few of them are forced down to lower levels in winter. 2. The basic terms, चटक, कुलिङ्ग, and कलविड which are applicable not only to birds of the present but of other families also, have been treated in the Glossaries as synonymous, but mentions f and कुलिङ्गक separately, and सुश्रुत distinguishes कुलिङ्ग, गृह-कुलिङ्ग and कलवि but places the last in the विष्किर group. भावप्रकाश, मांसवर्ग, includes कलबिङ, for and within the meaning of but distinguishes between चटक and कलविङ्क in the अर्शोऽधिकार section. चटक, besides being specific for Swallows and Swifts (Art. 25), is a wider and more general term for, (i) 'a bird in general e.g, in compound bird-names like मयूरचटक, मृगेन्द्रघटक, कालचटक, etc. and (ii) any bird of the size of a common Sparrow, and it is from this latter sense of the term that diminutives like चटिका, चटकका, or चटकिका have been formed for the still smaller birds like the Warblers, White-eye, Munias, etc. Grammarians derive the name from the root 'to break or kill' but it is probably of onomatopoetic origin in reference to their twittering notes, or the snapping sound made by the bill of a bird like the smaller Flycatchers when catching insects (Art. 11). The term f (को पथिव्यां भक्षणायें सिङ्गति गच्छति) refers to the habit of Sparrows moving about on the ground in search of food, while the name कलविङ्क (कलं मधुरास्फुटं व रौति) applies to several song-birds of the size of a Sparrow which are also beautiful to look at. Both these are also specific for particular types of song birds. 3. The House Sparrow is fr or we as against the Tree- Sparrows, plain looking Buntings and other wild Finches which go under the common names of कुलिङ्ग, वनचटक, वनकुलिङ्ग, etc. The House Sparrow being under every-day observation has won for itself several poetic adnouns, e.g., कामुक, कामचारी and वृषायण after the male's amorous behaviour towards the female; faqes for its variegated back; from its nesting in human Finches and Buntings dwellings; and after or from the black patch on its fore-neck. These so-called names are merely descriptive epithets, some of which have been applied to other birds as well: 93 “कामी स्यात्कामुके चक्रवाके पारावतेऽपि च" -- मेदिनी, "कालकण्ठस्तु दात्यूहे कलबिच खञ्जने" – विश्वप्रकाश. (singing कलवि on the other hand shares the epithet beautifully) with the large black Bee, the Hawk-Cuckoo and the Grey Partridge, the last two being fu- “कलानुनादी रोलम्बे कलबिङ्के कपिञ्जले" -विश्वप्रकाश. Everyone of the three best songsters of India, (i) the Magpie Robin, (ii) the Shama (T), both of which are also as they have black head and neck, and (iii) the Blackbird, is af. In literature they are mentioned simply as fa. Poetic courtesy, however, has extended the term (कालकण्ठ-) कलविडक to what was merely the गुहकुलिङ्ग or ग्रामचटक simply because of its black throat and upper breast: "कलविकः स्मृतो ग्रामचटकेऽपि कुलिङ्गके" --विश्वप्रकाश, where the use of the term 'af' is perhaps significant. feft, however, reads कलिङ्गक. If कुलिङ्गक is the correct reading it would refer to the Grey-winged Blackbird or the Magpie Robin (Art. 10), but if with कलिङ्गक (के मूनि लिङ्गं चूडा यस्य), supported as it is by the विश्वलोचनकोश, the bird meant would be the तिलककण्टक कलविङ्क i.e., the Crested Lark ( Art. 27). श्रीहर्षं mentions the House Sparrow by the name of fag in a rather vulgar reference in नैषधचरित 18.16. 4. The has listed several Sparrow-like bird as types of चटक:- "चटको वर आटकः बलिभुक् कलविश्व सेव्यस्तिलककण्टकः कलविङ्कस्त्वसौ पीतमुण्ड:" as a common name for a sparrow is probably intended to serve as a base for the qualifying epithets that follow it. Thus: (i) वर चटक (वर कुकूमे श्रेष्ठ and therefore, of 'a red colour and 'excellent') refers probably to the Scarlet and Rose Finches, the रक्तशीषं कलविङ्क of डल्हणाचार्य; (ii) * (*wandering Sparrow') are the Buntings, one variety of which, the Crested Bunting, is चिरिटीक in चरक; (iii) बलिभुक् चटक the House Sparrow, the same as गृहकुलिङ्ग (iv) af are the Magpie Robin, the Shama, and the Black- bird (Art. 10); (v) सेव्य चटक is the Red Munia, the same as सुनार कलविङ्क (Art. 22 B); 94 (vi) fr (vii) पोतमुण्ड Birds in Sanskrit Literature is the Crested Lark (Art. 27); चटक also called पोतमुण्ड कलविडक, is (Art. 22-A). the Weaver-Bird the 3. The to be sacrificed to the personified deity of Summer must have white in its body-colour (ara. affiga, 24, 11), and कलविङक in "ग्रीष्माय कलविङ्कान्-" (Ibid., 24, 20 ) is no other than the beautiful Magpie Robin which, with black head, neck, and upper part, is pure white below with a good deal of white on the wings and tail. No other Sparrow has so much and such pure white in its plumage. More- over, this bird is in full song in Summer. af, again, is a victim for god त्वष्ट्रा in :- "कलविको लोहिताहिः पुष्करसादस्ते त्वाष्ट्रा:"- Ibid., 24.31 and is probably the same, for one is said to have come out of the ga head of far, the son of , and the bird's powerful and spirited song is attributed to its peculiar birth from a drunken head: "ततः कलविङ्कः समभवत् तस्मात् सोऽभिमाद्यत्क इव वदत्यभिमाद्यन्निव हि सुरां पीत्वा वदति – शतपथ ब्राह्मण, 5.5.4,5 In the alternative, the bird may be the beautiful daque af, the Weaver-Bird, some sort of a whistler, and the best bird-architect of India, in reference to being the expert artisan of the gods. This goes well with the nest making skill of the Whiskered Tern, which alone of the Indian Terns, constructs a nest on a lotus leaf by winding round and round water- weeds upon it, and hence called ger (Art. 69), and afgarfe, the beautifully marked red Coral Snake of genus Callophis. 6. डल्हणाचार्य on सुश्रुतसंहिता is uncertain as to the identity of कलविड and offers several alternatives, one of which:- "अन्ये तु रक्तशिरसं कृष्णग्रीवं ग्रामचटकाकार कलविङ्कमाहुः, " is significant and would seem to refer to the Gold-headed Black Finch or the Gold-fronted Black Finch. It is possible that the statement has mixed up the descriptive terms (i) for the Rose and other Finches having red on the head, and (ii) कृष्णग्रीव (i.e., कालकण्ठ कलविडक ) for the Magpie Robin and the Shama, as different kinds off or to the Rose- Song-Sparrows. In any case fa refers Finch, and af to the Gold-fronted and the Gold- headed and Gold-fronted Black Finches, the Red-headed Bull-Finch, etc., beautiful Himalayan birds found in Kashmir and Nepal and some of which migrate to the plains in winter. In short all pretty looking Finches with a sweet voice are af and many of them have been favourite cage- birds in Nepal and elsewhere from time immemorial. kind of Sparrow 7. or black-tailed Sparrow) is a in M. Williams and free and the name probably belongs to the Bull-Finches which have entirely black tails. The Red-headed Bull-Finch 95 Finches and Buntings is known as if in Assam and this name is perhaps a corruption of forg कलबिन—कोबिन as under the influence of Bengali कल is pronounced as कोल. The Bull-Finches are, therefore, the age or af of the lexicons. It must be added in conclusion that the term कलविङ्क as used in स्मृति and a literature, in connection with the ban against the killing of birds for food, is co-extensive in meaning with the terms and covers all Sparrow-like birds just as the terms and ge imply all Storks, Ibises. and Herons, and all Swans, Geese and Ducks, respectively, and so on with other generic bird-names. B. BUNTINGS 1. The Buntings form a well-defined group within the Finch family, but those resembling the common Sparrow in outward appearance and habits would, as individuals, pass for a gf or . Some species, how- ever, like the Black-headed and the Red-headed Buntings which are very gregarious and move in large flocks or swarms and cause considerable da- mage to winter-crops, were named very early. Thus we have a (grain-robber or crop destroyer) for them in the age class of birds in g. These birds breed beyond the Indian limits and visit the plains of India during the winter from the foot of the Himalayas southwards, and from Sind in the west Bihar in the east. The Black-headed Bunting has the entire lower plumage deep yellow but in the Red-headed this colour is confined to the lower breast, flanks, and the abdomen. Other Sanskrit names for them are based on this and other features:- (i) In the traf displaced:--- “भोरिट: श्यामचटकः शैशिरः कणभक्षक: गृहकर्तृ क्षमो भीरुः कृषिद्विष्टः कणप्रियः” --- कल्पद्रुकोश the two halves of the above verse have been slightly "भारोट: श्यामचटक: शैशिरः कणभक्षकः धूसरोऽन्यो ऽति सूक्ष्मः स्याच्चटको धान्यभक्षकः गृहकृत्यक्षमो भीरुः कृषिद्विष्ट: कणप्रियः" Here the first and third lines constitute a connected verse and the second line refers to a different bird, viz., the Finch Lark (Art. 27) and is clearly out of place. The authors of both these lexicons appear to have borrowed from an old manuscript, probably of aff, the present printed edition of which, however, contains only the second slightly corrupt line of the original as below:- (iii) "गृहकर्ताऽक्षमो भीरुः कृषिद्विष्टः कणप्रियः” and the first line was probably similar to what we have in the other two lexicons. The readings गुहन्तु क्षम ( perhaps more correctly गृहकर्जंक्षम गृहत् + 96 Birds in Sanskrit Literature most probably incorrect (गृहकृति + अक्षम गृहकृती अक्षमः, arera) and gafsar in (i) and (iii) above. are readings or inadvertent variants of गृहकृत्यक्षम does build one), the original unable to build a nest, or one that reading of af or other lexicon correctly reproduced in (ii). The expression means that the wree birds do not nest in the country. If on the other hand it is split up into two separate words, or af and S or 3, they hardly make any sense so far as these birds are concerned. They do not breed in India and cannot be described as af, while or (competent or incompetent) can hardly be a bird-name. The misunderstanding and the consequent confusion is not difficult to explain. ger is an independent bird-name in 12.66, for the Weaver- Bird (Art. 22-A) and lexicographers, missing the significance of the adjec- tive गुहुकृत्यक्षम read into it गृहस्तू or गृहकर्ता as synonyms of बृहकारी and substituted what each believed to be the correct reading. In doing so one retained the negative & before and the other omitted it. It is this negative, a, happily preserved in the current edition of aft, that helps to dissolve the expression correctly as indicated above. for a kind of Sparrow in M.W. is, therefore, incorrect. The Black-headed and the Red-headed Buntings are (i) श्यामचटक (श्याम-हरिद्वणं, the yellow sparrow, cf. श्यामा-हरिद्रा) and (ii) भारीट (v.l. भोरिट, भारिट-भरेण समूहन arefa, going in flocks). The epithets, and fufae correspond to अन्नदूषक of चरक and mark them out as enemies of cultivation. भीरु means 'dreadful or awful' (Wilson) while #fre describes all the Buntings as winter visitors. 2. The Grey-necked and the Ortolan Buntings, both migrating to India in flocks, have no yellow in their plumage and are not but they are certainly मंशिर चटक or भारीट. They go by the name of जमजोहरा (fr. Sansk. 4, moving, marching, or यम god of death, and यवहर grain-robber) and the Red-headed variety as zaferet in Hindi. Both the names mean 'a bird that moves in large flocks' or in the alternative the crop-destroying host of death ()'. Other local Hindi names are भर्रा and हुर्रा (fr. भारीट); cf. "हारन में हुर्रा हजारन लागे"-"Buntings by the thousand are attacking the crops." ce v po 3. चिरिटीक (v.1. चिरीटीक) is a प्रतुद bird in चरक, 1.27 and is evidently the same as freer in Hindi for the Crested Bunting. It is a bird of solitary habits and wanders a good deal. fare means 'a head ornament and also a kind of sparrow'. This Bunting has an upright crest (fe) and would seem to be the तिरीट (चटक) of M. W. Perhaps the terms किरोटी, fra and fat are closely allied. The second, viz., fret occurs as a bird name in "fret g faff" which appears to be a wrong reading of 'चिरीटी तु चिरीटिका or चिराटिका'. If, on the other hand, चिरिटीक is from चिर+टीक, चिरंटीकते, the name would correspond to the आटक चटफ of वैजयन्ती, and would then refer to the Buntings as a class. 1. Also means a panther or tiger in fauce. 24 WAXWING This family is represented by a single Species, Bombaycilla. It breeds in the Arctic region, is a rare winter visitor to the extreme North-west, and has been observed at Bannu and Kohat on a few occasions only. Except for a single plaintive note, uttered occasionally, it is a silent bird and no Sanskrit name is possible for it. 25 MARTINS AND SWALLOWS 1. The Swallows resemble each other very closely in structure, differ- ing only in the shape of the tail, which, however, is different in almost every species and cannot be considered a generic character. They have, therefore, been classified according to their colour-pattern and habits. Even in Europe at the present day people confuse a Martin for a Swallow and vice versa. 2. Swifts at a distance resemble Swallows and in common parlance both are known as are in Hindi but the former belong to a differ- ent Order of Birds (Art. 45). The chief difference between the two is that while Swallows have the first toe directed backwards and the remain- ing three forwards Swifts have all the four toes directed forwards. This results in different perching habits for the two kinds of birds. Swallows can freely perch on trees, telegraph wires, buildings and on the ground but Swifts cannot do so except on their nest, and once a Swift finds itself on the ground it cannot get back into the air except with the greatest difficulty. Because of this weakness they have been named कृश and दुर्बल or दुर्बलिक in Sanskrit. Swallows and Martins with the exception of the Sand-Martin build cup or retort-shaped nests of mud and have therefore been termed w (fr. w in what must have been its original sense, viz., an earthen. pot or vessel; Cf. कौलालकं पटादि भाण्डम् - हम शब्दानुशासन ). Nevertheless they came to be confused with the Swallows at a very early date as may be seen from the statement "दुर्बलिको भाण्डीक: प्राच्यानाम्" in the बृहत्संहिता, 88.7. 3. In spite of the confusion in the popular mind and even on the part of the writers like वराहमिहिर, the धन्वन्तरि निघण्टु has curiously enough distinguished three different kinds of these birds: "चटी चटक इत्युक्तो, भारद्वाजो, नहिः कुटिः । चटकोऽन्यश्चतुर्थस्तु खञ्जरी चलपिच्छकः ।। viz. (i) चटी or चटक (ii) भारद्वाज and (iii) नहि कुटि. The equation "बञ्जरी चलपिच्छक:" refers either to the Pipit or to the Redstart. धन्वन्तरि has भारद्वाज 1. 6.3.194 2. निषण्ट रत्नाकर has the incorrect reading of अहिकुटी which is equated with भरद्वाज पक्षी. 99 Martins and Swallows and are separetaly for Larks. Small Swallow-like birds are mentioned by the name of es in the age group of birds in independently of ferr: for the Sparrow-group, as is interpreted by the commentator चक्रपाणिदत as "चटकस्तु देवकुलचटक: स्वल्पप्रमाण:." The expression देवकुलचटक would include the Common House Swift, the Indian wire-tailed and Striated Swallows all of which nest in cliffs, caves, under bridges, houses and temples (). The now extant greifar also mentions 2 as one of the fag: and the reference is to (i) the Sand Martins which nest in sandy cliffs and banks in the vicinity of running water and spend the greater part of their waking hours hawking insects over the surface of the water, placid or running, and out of the breeding season roost in the reed-beds bordering water; (ii) the Wire-tailed Swallows which again are essentially birds of the neighbourhood of water, skimming over the surface for insects; and (iii) the highly gregarious Cliff Swallows which nest in colonies and hawk for insects in big flocks in the near vicinity of water. It will be noted that all these belong to the Swallow group and the synonyms and like must refer to the Swallows proper. The term, in the sense of a small bird, is also used for a Swift (Art. 45). The name , on the other hand, excludes the Sand Martins, which tunnel a long hole for their nest in a Sand-bank and do not construct f mud stuck to a wall or rock-face. a nest 4. The aext name in धन्वन्तरि isभारद्वाज (भरन् धारको वाजोऽस्य - borne high on wings). w is also the Skylark which again flies strongly and very high. Now and ge are synonymous terms, and when the latter means 'a Swift' (Art. 45) the former too must be another name for it. कृश as a bird in the far gas has been explained differently by the two com- mentators (i) as गोमेणक (गवि आकाशे मिणमिणति ?), a black and long-tailed bird (gr), referring probably to the Wire-tailed Swallow, and (ii) as भारद्वाज. If the identity of कृश and भारद्वाज with दुर्बल is accepted, all three would mean a Swift and the reference to the Wire-tailed Swallow by one of the commentators must be held erroneous. 5. The third variety in धन्वन्तरि is नहि कुटि: (नहिकुटि: ?) (कुटि, a hut or a nest; cf. feges, a destroyer of a nest, in the title of the Kuti- dūsaka Jataka), a name which has survived in Bengal as fes for the Indian Sand Martin, and would seem to apply to the Crag Martin 3. 11.1.2 at page 313 of the Notes. The arg, 1.7, also mentions as a bird of the class, and the expression ":" occurring there probably means the birds living in human habitations. 4. This appears, probably by metathesis, as get in the list of edible birds in the हारीत संहिता Ch. 11- "पोतकी भूङ्गिका क्षुद्रा तथा च कुनटी स्मृता एते तुल्यगुणा ज्ञेया:". The little fer is the same as mentioned earlier (ib.) as a water-bird, both referring to the steel-blue swallow which hawks insects over water; Cf. : the large black-bee and a Drongo, and for the Purple Sun-Bird of a deep blue-black colour. 100 Birds in Sanskrit Literature as well. These birds do not nest in buildings or houses and "never associate with man" and the name probably is after this habit of the two Martins. The first element #fg: in the name certainly implies an emphatic nega- tive, and af:gfe: means 'a bird that does not nest in a shop or house'. It is really interesting to note that, despite the confusion that obtains in the popular mind all over the world, the ancient Indians had distinguished three main types amongst these seemingly similar birds with a very fair degree of accuracy. 6. The Swallow and the Swift are known in Marathi as raitet which is capable of more than one derivation (i) पाका, पुत्रिका, and अवली -little birds living or moving in groups or parties (ii) Prak. (+) very confused, referring to the erratic flight of a party of such birds; and (iii)as bearing a close affinity to the first of the correlated expressions, “उत्पत्यपाकला" and "निषण्णश्यामा", explained as a bird which looks white when high up on the wing and black when settled on the ground or the nest: "उत्पत्य आकाशे भूत्वा या पाकला पाण्डर्भवति सा उत्पत्यपाकला. निषण्णा सती श्यामा जाता निषण्णश्यामा--" गणरत्नमहोदधि, 122-23. The birds referred to in the above statement are evidently the Common and Wire-tailed Swallows and the House Martins which are black above and white or pale-white below. They have very short tarsi, than half an inch, and therefore sit very low, so that in this position they look black. (fr) but when they are high in the air they appear to be white (). The Hindi Sabda-Sagara gives you as one of the names for a Swallow (under arter) perhaps from some Sansk. lexicon and this name seems to be an analogue of निषण्णश्यामा as पाकोली may be of उत्पत्यपाकला. 7. The शब्दार्थं चिन्तामणि has इल्वल and M. Williams इल्लल for a kind of bird'. If the names are connected with the root lying down and going up' they would seem to correspond in meaning to the correlated expressions considered above. : are five stars in the head of Orion perhaps implies the idea of shining high in the air or sky which and is true of the birds under discussion. On the other hand the name may be imitative of the bird's call and therefore identical with aferer, and if so, it would apply to the Swift (Art. 45) and reading of the former. would be a wrong and 5. Cf. terms like implying change of colour from green to purple on ripening and from dark to white on burning, respectively. Prakrit वाउप्पइया (बातोत्पतिका) for a kind of bird is clearly allied to this word. It probably refers to the Swifts which spend most of their time in the air and never descend to the ground (Art. 45). 101 Martins and Swallows 8. A certain, small Sparrow like bird named पूजनी शकुनि (चटका इति भरत:- शब्दकल्पद्रुम) is mentioned in the story of king ब्रह्मदत्त in महाभारत' while it appears under the name of पूजनीया शकुनिका in हरिवंश, where it is said to frequent tanks and rivers and is described as below:- "farfarven forfører forfargest ferarent" Commentator नीलकण्ठ explains शितिपक्षा as "white-wingeds and शितिपुष्ठा as "black-backed" and lets fat severely alone. Looking, however, to the fact that the little bird is in the habit of visiting tanks and rivers, and further that the term rec means also a Swallow, it seems more reasonable to interpret farfarrer as "having black and white wings", i.e. black above and white below; farfargest as "black above" and feated as 'having white lower parts'. This would also fit in with a clever and yet punning or mystifying use of the word fafar by the poet in three different senses. Subject to the correctness of this interpretation, the Indian Wire-tailed Swallow fully stands up to the description given in the verse. It has a chest-nut red head, black wings with a white lining to them, and white under-parts. It visits water regularly for insect food, builds an open cup-shaped nest from which the young ones can be gently taken out and replaced. This Swallow would thus seem to be the gf bird and the physical basis of the story where the other details are of course imaginary and intended to heighten the effect and lead up to a moral. The name. gafar is happily conceived inasmuch as the black and white bird appears to have been worshipped with on the head, for it has no red else- where on its body. Alternatively the names also imply that the bird is one that has to be respected or treated with hospitality, i.e., to be allowed to nest and breed in one's house and therefore protected. Swifts also are to be treated in a similar way and a person who does so is known as refer (Art. 45). These birds often establish themselves at one place. and continue to breed from generation to generation if not disturbed. This has given rise to a belief that the family owning and occupying the house would also continue to prosper in the same way. 6. 12.139. 7. 1.20 8. 1.20.81. 26 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS A. WAGTAILS 1. Wagtails are small dainty birds with a compact plumage, walking, running or trotting about with great speed on the ground and constantly wagging their long tails up and down. "The gait is a brisk walk or run, with a back and forward motion of the head" (Smythies), reminding one strongly of the name a (a little pony) for a kind of sparrow. The common name for a Wagtail is खन्जन, and खजबेट (खजः विकलगतिक, खेट: घोटक: or खेट इन खञ्जति–'a dancing little pony'; see शब्दकल्पद्रुम for खेट) is one of its many synonyms. In Gujarat it is known as tarefter (winter-pony) as different varieties of it arrive in the country after the rains are over. This analogy with a pony occurred to Gilbert White also who remarks in his letter No. 60 to Thomas Pennant that "the tail of the Wagtail when in motion bobs up and down like that of a jaded horse." 2. Wagtails may be divided for the purpose of this article into three groups (i) White Wagtails; (ii) Yellow Wagtails and (iii) the Large Pied Wagtail. Birds of the first group are the proper of works on augury like the बृहत्संहिता and वसन्तराजशाकुन, as also of the poets who compare the dark, sparkling and longish eyes of beautiful young ladies with the shapely body of these smart and active birds. if, ch.44 refers to the White Wagtails as खञ्जन, or खञ्जनक but they are also named possibly as श्रीक in 47, 6 but certainly as in 85, 38, we regards these names as synonymous but does not equate them with बञ्जन श्रीकण्ठ in वसन्तराज 4.52, however, has been rendered as by the commentator which appears to be correct, for the black-throated god Siva also is ss. Like name as the also would appear to be a homonym, applicable, with different derivations, to two binds—–(i) श्रीरिव कायति शब्दं करोति श्रीक: the Himalayan Whistling Thrush (Art. 10), and (ii) शोभायुक्त भद्रो वा श्रीक: a beautiful bird' from the black patch on a white breast, or 'a lucky bird'the White Wagtail, in either case. Persian 'Sareecha" for a Wagtail is perhaps identical with Sanskrit : as is often changed to in Persian, e.g., अश्वक अस्पचा (aspacha), a small pony. If this is correct si: would be a very old name for a White Wagtail. Wagtails and Pipits 103 खज्जन, though often derived from बजि-गतिवैकल्ये, may well be a later name analogous to Prakrit meaning (i) mud, (ii) lamp-black, and (iii) black grease from the axle-hole or hub of a cart-wheel. The idea in each. case is that of a thing produced in or from void, sky, or hole (), and as applied to these birds the term should refer to their coming to the earth from the skies ( (खात् आकाशात् जननं उत्पत्तिरस्य-खज्जनः) at the end of the rains; cf. frate and fag, below, also for the bit of a bridle which rests in the hollow of the horse's mouth. Two other synonyms for a area and are both referring to its active movements like those of a dancer (). For nga see Art. 10, and for fre Art. 71. 3. The Yellow Wagtails also are variously known, e.g. as गोपीत, गोपुत्र, गोप or गोपापुल, गोपीतिलक (गोपीतलक ?), or गोपीतनक; and the Large Pied Wagtail, having black head, neck and upper breast like the Magpie Robin, is कालकण्ठ नीलकण्ठ, and काकच्छदि-खञ्जन (having black upper plunage like a Crow's; fe is incorrect). The Large Pied Wagtail being resident throughout the country is not a bird of augury. One variety of the White Wagtail and several Yellow Wagtails breed in the Himalayas. The re- maining species, listed in the Fauna of British India, breed outside India and are only winter-visitors to the plains. 4. All migratory Wagtails are birds of augury according to RE and afgar. The former divides the White Wagtails into five varieties and places all Yellow Wagtails into a single group called गोपुन or खज्जरीट. The latter distinguishes only three kinds of White Wagtails and calls the Yellow ones as गोपीत खञ्जन, The interesting explanation of वसन्तराज (10.1-9) for the mysterious disappearance of the birds and their sudden reappearance, and the names given by him to different varieties are as under:- "त्वं योगयुक्तो मुनिपुत्रकस्त्वं, प्रदृश्यतामेषि शिखोद्गमेन विलोक्यसे प्रावृषि निर्गतायां त्वं खञ्जनाचर्यमयो नमस्ते" (2) प्रभद्र, (3) अनुभद्र, (4) अम्बर भद्र, and (5) गोपुन (गोमूत्र is

cf. below. The tiga or Yellow Wagtail

(1) समन्तभद्र, a misprint) or is defined as under:- "स्याद्यो हरिद्वारससंनिकाशो गोपुलनामा स तु खज्जरीट:" The classification in the far is as below:- "स्थूलोऽभ्युन्नतकण्ठः कृष्णगलो भद्रकारको भद्रः आंकण्ठमुखाकृष्णः सम्पूर्ण पूरयत्याशाम् कृष्णो गलेऽस्य बिन्दुः सितकरटान्तः स रिक्तकृद्रितः पीतो गोपीत इति क्लेशकरः खज्जनो दुष्टः" बृहत्संहिता, 44.2-3. "भेलसंहिता, 1.27 mentions गोपापुत्र as one of the edible birds, 104 Birds in Sanskrit Literature In the above extracts the first verse refers to their migratory habit and the traditional belief that they grow a crest towards the end of spring which renders them invisible during the hot weather and the rains, then the crest. is lost and they become visible again just as the star Canopus, called s rises above the horizon some time in August-September. The मुनिपुवक, therefore, poetically represents the bird as the chikl of sage अगस्त्य, It is listed as ऋषिपुत्र in विष्णुधर्मोत्तर, 1.151.46. It is interesting to note that the absence of the Large Pied Crested Cuckoo, the सारङ्ग चातक or दिवौकस for a period of about six months, October, November to June, July, name is explained by the belief underlying the name, frate (living in heaven or high up in the sky, Art. 37). This is also far, but farg for a Wagtail in M. Williams on the authority of Galanos is most probably incorrect (see Ibid). 5. All White Wagtails are extremely tame and make themselves at home in gardens and on open spaces in towns and villages and near about country-huts and houses. The different species visiting India consist of adult and immature birds and their plumage in winter varies a great deal, so much so, that it is impossible to differentiate the species in the field. The classifications in fear and are more or less superficial, based principally on the character of the plumage of the birds at the time of observation. All Yellow Wagtails are गोपुन or गोपीत हारिद्रव as the name of a particular bird occurs twice in the Rgveda, 1.50.12 and 8. 35. 7, and once in the Atharvaveda, 1.22.4 which is the same verse as RV 1.50. 12. It also occurs in the कौशिक सूत्र 26, 18. सायणाचार्यं in his commentary on RV 1.50. 12 has rendered fra as a kind of tree gf, Hindi, Adina Cordifolia, which occurs in sub- Himalayan tracts from the Jumna east-wards. Chloroxylon Swietenia, another with a yellow wood, does not occur north of the Nerbudda), but on RV. 8.35. 7 as a kind of bird (aferfa:) as the reference to the action of flying forced him to adopt that meaning. It is worth noting that he does not give here any synonym for the bird. The commentators of the कौशिकसूज have described हारिद्रव as हरिद्रवर्णाः पीताश्चिटका: (चटका:) at p. 76, f.n., and equated it with free at p. 326, i.e. a Yellow Wagtail. Sayana or his collaborator must have seen this commentary before he commented on the are, and he, therefore, rendered gif in AV. 1.22.4 as the bird but failed to revise his notes on the Rgveda. Both गोपीतिलक and गोपीतनक (गोपीतलक in each case ? ) are evidently the same गोपीत बञ्जन of the बृहत्संहिता But हारिद्रव is more probably, the Golden Oriole See Art. 19. 6. The half verse cited above from (10.9) would seem to show that are stands for any Yellow Wagtail and this finds support from मत्स्यपुराण, 118, 50 and 53 where ब्रजरीटक stands for the Yellow and for the White Wagtails. Similarly afrage, 232, 14 and 16 gives. andre as different birds. The Yellow Wagtails alone perch on trees and the following cited by महेन्द्र in his commentary on अनेकार्थसङ यह of Wagtails and Pipits clinches the point in favour of 105 being the Yellow Wagtails:- "कुजेषु सञ्जन्ति च खञ्ज रीटा:" – (कुजेषु –on trees). Poets and Lexicons have, however, obliterated the distinction. between andre and both these terms have been used for the White Wagtails which are a standard of comparison for beautiful eyes in literature. 7. Names like गोपुत्र, गोपपुव or गोपापुत्र ('dear to the Cows or Cowherds') denote the Grey-Wagtail, the Black-headed and the Yellow-headed Wagtails which "hover round grazing cattle for insects" (Hume) or "assemble in parties and feed among cattle" (Cassall's Book of Birds). The equation "गोपपुवस्तु लोपाको" in the bird section of कल्पद्रुकोश is indicative of their disappearance from the country in summer. aga is mentioned in farogurater, 1.151.48. 8. वजयन्ती कोश gives गोलत्तिका for बजरीटी ic. a female Yellow Wagtail and one of this type is prescribed as a victim for the Spirits of the Waters:- "रोहित कुण्डुणाची गोलत्तिका तेऽप्सरसां" - वाज. संहिता, 24.37. Now these three sacrificial creatures must be closely connected with water and af should be the fish of that name or at best the swamp-deer; gut, rendered as a kind of lizard, must be a water-lizard of the Varanus group, probably the Kabara Goya, a large slender species of water lizard of India which is "equally at home on land or in the water where it swims by means of the flattened tail, the limbs being closely pressed against the sides." Enc. Brit. 14th. Edn. Vol. 14, 247. This Lizard is found in Nepal and reaches a length of 7 ft.-ibid., 11th Edn., Vol. 16, 827.* Turning to गोलतिका (गो, carth or water and लत्तिका a lizard; moving on land or near water like one) there can hardly be any doubt that it is Hodgson's Yellow-headed Wagtail, "the most aquatic of all Wag- tails", which chiefly frequents marshes, and edges of rivers, tanks, etc. If the difficulty of distinguishing the male and female of these birds is borne in mind, it would be better to treat the name in the feminine as an instance. of a fer like many other bird-names in Sanskrit, and it would then be a specific name for the above-named Wagtail. I may add that the selection of a water-lizard and a water-Wagtail makes it highly

• This rendering of

t would perhaps help to explain the movement of a storm crashing upon a forest with the zigzag. turning and twisting motion of a large water-lizard first on the land and then throwing itself into the water with a loud splash, referred to in the Rgveda: "पताति कृष्णाच्या दूरं वाती बनादधि"1.29. 6. Cf. f, the ft creeper, which climbs upon a tree (List of New Words in the Introduction to कौशिक मूत्र). Birds in Sanskrit Literature probable that fa is a fish and not a deer as taken by the commenta- tors. All three water creatures are of very active habits, befitting the nature of Water-nymphs. 106 9. A few of the so-called lexical common names of the bird may now be explained. The adnoun fe (whose nest is not visible) for can only refer to the White and Yellow Wagtails which do not breed in the plains of India. gas refers to a particular phase in the plum- age of the White and White-faced Wagtails in which the black on the breast is reduced to a narrow crescent in summer. This corresponds to अम्बरभद्र of वसन्तराज :- "कृष्णा भवेत् कण्ठगतंव रेखा यस्य त्वसौ चाऽम्बरभद्रनामा"-10.7. The रिक्त खजन of बृहत्संहिता and आकाशभद्र of वसन्तराज is the immature White- faced Wagtail or a young Hodgson's Pied Wagtail in both of which the black patch on the breast is a small one. कर्कराक्ष (कर्कर, a mirror; holding a mirror to an excellent eye, i.e. resembling one); कर्कराज (कर्कर, hard, having a neat and compact body); (moving on the sands); कलाटीन and खजवेल (cf. तण्डक; tripping beautifully ); मिथुनिन् ( going about in pairs). ftreter (surpassing the fish in agility and beauty of form, both fish and bird being used as comparisons for beautiful eyes); (auspicious named; cf. भद्र of बृहत्संहिता and names ending in भद्र in वसन्तराज); and [तनिधि (abounding in love or passionate "प्रचुरतरमन्मयविकारवत्त्वात् " as the male bird not only displays before the female but also sings lustily during consummation and after the act). This last name, afafa, derived differently (fafa: a) and therefore, inisunderstood, gave rise to the belief that there is wealth underneath where the birds mate:- "तस्मिन्निधिर्भवति मैथुनमेति यस्मिन्" -बृ. संहिता, 14.12. However eager or ardent, the bird will not mate except where there is wealth underground:- "अङ्गेषु जीयंति परं खञ्जनयूनोर्मनोभव प्रसरः न पुनरनन्तगभितनिधिनि धरामण्डले केलि:"——आर्यासप्तशती, 7. effe also adds that there is likely to be coal underground where the bird voids, and advises the curious actually to dig for wealth or coal at such places: "तत्कौतुकापनयनाय खनेद्धरित्रीम्" – 44.12. In literature the (the White or the White-faced Wagtail) is a standard of comparison for (i) the light, sportive gait of a young lady, and (ii) dark, beautiful, sparkling and longish-looking eyes: (1) for the playful gait of a goddess: "क्षेमा क्षेमावती चैव खेलत् खञ्जनगामिनी" --पद्मिनीस्तोत्र. (2) Lover, willing to stake his life for the sake of a maiden possessing eyes like a बञ्जन : Wagtails and Pipits "युष्मत्कृते खञ्जनगञ्जनाक्षि ! शिरोमदीयं यदि याति यातु"-उद्भट. (3) A pair of White Wagtails, supposed to face each other, as it were, at the root of the nose of the beloved--the contrasting black breast-patches of the birds representing the black of the eyes. “अन्योन्यचञ्चपुटचुम्बनखजरीट- युग्माभिरामनयना शयने स्मरामि" -बिल्हणकाव्य (4) The almond-shaped long eyes of Srikrsna :- "कर्णोपान्त चरन्नेव खञ्जरीट मनोहरम्"वायुपुराण, 104.46 (5) The river Ganga personified as a young woman with a pair of white Wagtails for her eyes: "तन्वी शरत् विपथगा पुलिने कपोलो लोले दृशौ रुचिरचञ्चलखञ्जरीटौ” 107 -अमरुशतक

• Cf. "स्फोट: चट चटा शब्द:"Corn on कामन्दकीय नीतिसार, 7.16.

B. PIPITS Pipits are small brown birds, whitish or pale-fulvous below and strea- ked on the breast. On one side, they are related to the Wagtails like which they run on the ground and wag their tails up and down but more, sedately, and on the other to the larks which they resemble somewhat in plumage and other characters. According to their habits, they are called Tree- Pipits, Ground- or Indian-Pipits and Water-Pipits. In the breeding season, the males suddenly rise in the air, uttering their song and after reaching the highest point (which is not very high) come down in an abrupt curve, with stiff partly extended wings. They are known as T (from Sanskrit चचरी हर्षीडा ) in Hindi and स्फोटिका* in Sanskrit after the manner of their flight and song. Other Sanskrit names are तुलिका or दुलिका (दुल-उन्माने, "तुलिका enten an." free, from their tail wagging habit). The equation, "खञ्जरी चलपिच्छक: " of धन्वन्तरि if not applicable to the Red-start as suggested in Art.10 would certainly apply to these birds which are closely allied to Wagtails. 27 THE LARKS I. The Larks of India proper are small grey-brown birds closely resembling the Pipits. They are less nimble and have a more crouching gait. Not all the members of the family are good singers, and only the true Sky-Lark, the Crested Lark and the Singing Bush-Lark are appreciated for their song and favoured as cage-birds in India. The others have only a few sweet notes which can hardly be dignified by the name of a song. The rhapsody of the Sky-Lark is world-famous and it is not to be wondered at if one of the ancient Vedic singers been named after this bind— भरद्वाज v.1., भारद्वाज Next comes the Crested Sky-lark which sings high up in the air like the true Sky-lark and takes the notes of several other birds in its sweep. The singing Bush-Lark also has a full and sweet song but not at all comparable with that of the Sky-Lark or even the Crested' Lark. It sings both on the wing and on the ground. About the song-flight of the Sky-Lark, Smythies remarks: "In the song-flight the bird mounts vertically or obliquely with a vigorous fluttering action to a great height in the air, the song commencing a few feet from the ground. The bird remains poised, head to wind, the wing beats momentarily interrupted at intervals. It presently sinks gently down with wings inclined upwards till it suddenly completes the descent by an abrupt drop to the ground....The song..may be heard from October to April at all times of the day but specially at dawn long before it is really light." 2. w (fr. wt, 'song of praise', or 'what is carried away' and ar, strength, power of wings, i.e. a bird which sings during flight, or which is carried high on wings), भारती and ब्राह्मी चटी (धन्वन्तरि निघंटु) referring to its beautiful song as a prayer, are names for the Himalayan and Indian Sky-Larks. Its song high up "at Heaven's Gate", is well described by वसन्तराज "प्राप्य स्थिरत्वं चिरमन्तरिक्षे, नानाप्रकारं मधुरं स्वनन्ती" - 8.55 3. The excellence of the sustained, varied, and vigorous song of the Sky-Lark has been well recognized in which lays down that a baby-boy six months old should be given solid food at a special w ceremony at which the first feed should consist of the flesh of certain birds according as the parents desire him to develop certain qualities in his adult The Larks life. Thus he should be given the flesh of the wrrt or the Sky-Lark, if he is to excel in eloquence:- भारद्वाज्या मांसेन वाकुप्रसारकामस्य 1.19.7 Compare "स्वरवंचित्यं सर्व भारद्वाज्याः शुभ प्रोक्तम्" - बृहत्संहिता, 87.13. half verse. from far The following with alternative readings. would seem to refer to two different birds, a Quail and a Sky-Lark. Both the readings are set out below:- (1) 109 ( 2 ) फालखेला गरुदयोधी भारती व्योमलासिका फालखेला गरुद् गोधा भारती व्योमनासिका Now (frequenting cultivated land) is certainly applicable both to a Quail and the Sky-Lark, but it is very doubtful how far wret for at Quail si correct and here lies the main difficulty. हेमचन्द्र, मेदिनी and विश्वप्रकाश give art for only one kind of bird, which is evidently the Sky-Lark, and no other lexicon, to my knowledge, gives wrt for a quail exc.pt probably on the basis of No. 2 above. The epithet (winged-lizard) is clearly a wrong reading for a (fighting with wings), since the Quails, when they fight, strike each other with their wings. Similarly, the epithet fire, though it may refer to the Quails' habit of roosting on the ground at night with the bill pointing upwards, would seem to be a wrong reading of anfer (sporting, dancing, in the sky) which is perfectly true of the Sky-Lark. merferit in Prakrit for 'a kind of bird' (from , the sky, and are, dancing) is clearly the same as t-afer, and, there- fore, the Sky-Lark. It would be seen, therefore, that the original synonymy of far was the one set out as No. 1 above, and in this the first half "फालखेला गरुद्द्योधी" refers to a Quail, and the second half "wratenfer" to the Sky Lark. It is incorrect, as the commentators, have assumed, to treat all the four terms as relating to a single bird. 4. The Rufous Shcrt-toed Lark belonging to genus Calandrella is known as a and a in Hindi which at once reminds one of Sanskrit व्याघ्राट. It is also the वार्तीक of चरक and सुश्रुत, which has been explained by डल्हाणाचार्य with a quotation from some Glossary: "वार्तीका: वतिचटका: स्वल्पाः संघातचारिणः बगेड़ा इति लोके"; comp.-"वर्तीको बतिचटको वार्तीकश्चैव स स्मृतः:" (भावप्रकाशनिषष्ट्) Now the Rufous Short-toed Lark as a resident bird occurs here and there in small numbers, but in the winter these are greatly augmented by very large flocks migrating from outside into the plains of North India and they are then netted in large numbers for food. Thus this Lark is ein Sanskrit and in Hindi, and the synonymy of war with arre is not quite correct. The शब्दापंचिन्तामणि equates वर्तकी, वर्तिका, वर्त्तक, and बलंका, with व्याघ्राट and gives भारइ as the vernacular equivalent of वतंक, and भारइ of भरद्वाज. The शब्दकल्पद्रुम also has confused these names and equated वर्त्तक and afer with the vernacular wrt. This mix-up is due to the fact that the Rufous Short-toed Lark is me, aff, and also afar (Quail-like sparrow). Birds in Sanskrit Literature It was regarded as a Quail-like sparrow because it was plentiful during the winter with flocks of migrating Quails and was largely netted along with them, and this seems to be the reason why it has been placed with the Quails in T and gafar as already stated. They are also the af (fr. r a month and, therefore, a Quail-like bird that visits the country fora short period or a season only) and पोषवर्तिका ( fr. पुब to kill the birds being killed in large numbers for food). 110 The fer includes in one synonymy, three names of three different birds of the Lark family:- भरद्वाज कुकराटो व्याघ्राट: पुन्यदर्शनः । is in other lexicons, but instead of being a synonym for the Sky-Lark, it is the same as Hindi (:) for the Bush Larks, other than the Singing Bush Lark, which have hardly a song and this fact is recognised in the imitative names कराट and चरचरा. The Singing Bush Lark is known as afir in Hindi and afir foren in Telugu, and these names are probably traceable to f, the same as afrs, which means simply 'a bird' according to the lexicons but should have been rendered, as I strongly suspect, as 'a kind of bird.' A perusal of the various Unadi Sutras and lexicons shows that many specific bird-naines have been briefly rendered simply 'a bird' so that it is most likely that the term for af, was also so dealt with, and the bird's identity having been lost, the expression came to mean just 'a bird'. An absurd etymological explanation also has been offered for f कण्ठे कण्ठाभ्यन्तरे अग्निः, पाचनरूपाऽग्निरस्य-शब्दकल्पद्रुम, for everybody knows, and the etymologist certainly knew, that the 'digestive fire' (raf:) is in the stomach of all creatures including birds and not in the throat or neck. If on the other hand the lexicographer had to interpret it as a specific bird-name, he would have derived it in some such way:- कण्ठदेशे अग्निः शब्दरूपाग्निरस्य; comp. मुखाद् वाग् वाचोऽग्निः (ऐत. उप. 1.4), and अग्निर्वाग भूत्वा मुख प्राविशत् (ibid. 2.4. ) The singing Bush-Lark is very vocal and has a powerful voice-a caged bird often singing for the better part of twenty four hours of the day during the season and hence the name, afs or af. This derivation finds support from the fact that the name is on a par with a for the Cuckoo and readily explains the Hindi name af for the singing Bush-Lark, otherwise it is very difficult to see why the bird should have been named afir and अगिन जित्ता (अग्निचटक) i.e. fire, and fire sparrow respectively in Hindi and Telugu. Compared with the other Bush-Larks with harsh notes (), the singing Bush-Lark would pass for a good and powerful songater, and though, nowhere in comparison with the Sky-Lark or the Crested Lark, it is nevertheless a popular cage-bird of India. The धूसर पटक and अरण्य चटक are names a particular bird which is described as (crouching), f (roosting and breeding on the ground), (ground-born), and (walking little. or in The Larks short spurts) in धन्वन्तरिनिषण्टु राजनिघण्टु and कल्पद्रुकोश. These characters agree very well with the habits of the Finch Larks. Salim Ali says about the Ashy-crowned Finch Lark-"This little Lark affects flat, open cultivated country and semi-barren waste land. It is usually met with in pairs or parties which run along the ground, body held low, short zig-zag spurts, facing this way and that, in search of food. Its colouration is remarkably obliterative and matches the ground to per- fection...The nest is a tiny, neatly made saucer-like depression in the ground ....in open country." In regard to their obliterative colouration, Whistler mentions another trait of the birds: "On the ground their colouration renders these Larks very inconspicuous, and an observer walking along is often astonished at the numbers which rise one by one around him and then fly away in a dense flock from the ground which was apparently empty of life." They are called ge and eft the same as (crouching or squatting sparrow) in Hindi. Lastly we have fr included by ft in its list of song- sparrows. As the name implies, it is a bird which wears a sharply pointed crest on the fore-crown like a fars or upright sectarian mark on the forehead. It is clearly the Crested Lark. This bird is spread to the west and central Asia also; compare, Khar-i-sar, having a thorn i.e. a crest of pointed feathers on the head) for a Lark in Persian. The Hindi name for this bird is , which may be from Sanskrit (having a crest). or, a basket, referring to the little cage in which it is confined as a pet. The cage being covered with at least two folds of cloth, the bird is not distracted and continues to sing even when it is carried about along a busy thorough-fare. 111 28 THE WHITE EYE The White Eye is a small arboreal bird chiefly oiive-green and pale yellow in colour, and easily recognised by a conspicuous white ring round the eye. A tiny and pretty bird like this would simply pass for a gfarer* or ref in Sanskrit, and indeed its Hindi name an (a little child) shows that it was just a gfarer in Sanskrit. Its short pretty song, rather nasal in tone, should claim for it the name (a kind of bird-M.W.) for it. means 'having colour'and also 'a nasal tone' and admirably suits the White Eye in both the senses.

• For gfart in the sense of a small or dear little bird, see Art. 22 B.

29 THE RUBY-CHEEK The tiny Ruby-cheek does not occur west of Sikkim, and we cannot expect a Sanskrit name for it. It is a brilliant metallic green bird with coppery-red about the face, and stands very close to the Sun-birds in size and habits and would ordinarily pass for one. Its twittering call notes. resemble those of the White Eye. 30 THE SUN-BIRDS 1. The Sun-birds are of small and delicate make and the majority of the males are clothed in resplendent metallic plumage, and they are therefore easy of recognition as a group. They are found solitary or in pairs and being entirely of arboreal habits they feed on minute insects and the nectar of flowers. The males have a short but pretty song in the breeding season. The birds of the Aethopyga genus are brilliantly dressed in metallic green or blue, crimson, yellow and purple. They have metallic green or crimson tails, the middle pair of feathers prolonged. Certain varieties like the Indian Yellow-backed Sun-bird, the Fire-tailed Yellow-backed Sun-bird, and the Nepal Yellow-backed Sun-bird are common in the Himalayan valleys of North India and Nepal. They are evidently the gaviger (Golden-flower) of the garden of Indra described in the ga, ch. 39, 18:- "नानावर्णैश्च शकुनैः नानारत्नतनूरुहै: सुवर्णपुष्पैचानेकैः मणितुण्डद्विजातिभिः" These Sun-birds of multicoloured and shining plumage are comparable with the still smaller Humming Birds of America described as "jewels on wings", and it is interesting to note that their Indian counterparts too have been portrayed as possessing 'a be-jewelled plumage'- "akade" in the above verse. They have been beautifully described by at under the name of affeafor (ff to tinkle or jingle, referring to their sweet jingling song):- "मनः शिलाभिवंदनविहङ्गा यत्राक्षिभिः स्फाटिकसन्निभैश्च शादैच (v.I. श्यावैश्य) पक्षैरतिलोहितान्तैः माजष्ठकैरर्धसितंच पादैः चितैः सुवर्णच्छदनैस्तथान्यैः वैदूर्यनीलनंयनः प्रसन्नंः विहङ्गमा शीञ्जिरिकाभिधाना स्तैर्मनः श्रोतहरे भ्रमन्ति" सौन्दरनन्द, 10.29-30. 2. The Purple Sun-bird, common throughout India, is and , (the Bee or Honey-Bird, cf. Urdu, w for it), so named from its small size, glistening black plumage, and the habit of collecting honey from the flowers. It is mentioned as मधुकर in वायुपुराण, 36.5:- The Sun-Birds “मदोत्कटै मधुकरैः भ्रमरैश्च महालसैः उपगीत वनान्तानि किन्नरैश्च क्वचित् क्वचित्" 115 It is known in Hindi as फुलचुही which is synonymous with पुष्पंधय (flower- sucker), the same as or . Gorressio's edition of the Rámāyaṇa also mentions the bird as # at 2.56.11 according to the St. Petersberg Dictionary. 31 FLOWER-PECKERS The Flower-peckers are tiny Himalayan birds (3.2 to 4.5") resemb ling the Sun-birds in habits, but beyond a twitter they have nothing in the way of a song. Brightly coloured species like the Indian Scarlet-backed and the Fire-breasted Flower-peckers would ordinarily pass for a variety of सुवर्णपुष्प considered in the preceding article but not as a शीजिरिका, for they have no song. Others like the Plain-coloured and Tickell's Flower- peckers would, from their small size, simply go by the common name of fer for any small bird. 32 PITTAS Three varieties of Pitta are found in India. The Indian Pitta is found all over the country, the Blue-naped Pitta occurs in the outer Himalayas from Nepal eastwards, while the Blue Pitta of Bhutan is found in Assam and further cast. They are coarsely built birds (7"-9") with a short tail. and long and powerful legs. Terrestrial by habit they feed chiefly on insects, lizards and occasionally mice. Their stumpy shape and upright carriage are distinctive. The male has a "magnificent double whistle" as well as song. The Indian Pitta has a plumage variegated with blue, green, black, white, fulvous and crimson, and is very aptly known as at (bird of nine colours) in Hindi. The Blue-naped Pitta is tawny rufous, washed with grass-green on the back, rump and tail, and bright blue on the nape and hind neck. The Blue variety is blue above and has a blue wash on different parts of the body, some red on the head and nape and yellow on the breast. The name ¶ (shaped like a lotus flower prior to opening out), if correctly equated with frer (fre Cuckoo and ag a bird, i.e., a bird with a double call-note like the Cuckoo) in riff and g should properly belong to the Pitta. If fry is rendered as 'having a body like the Cuckoo's' it would refer to a bird like the Large Cuckoo-Shrike which is a dark grey bird and can by no means be described as पद्मपुष्प Another probable name for the beautiful Indian Pitta is चित्रक (चित्रम् - painted bird), corresponding to Hindi ater, mentioned with other song birds of the Himalayas.: "शुकैच भृद्धगराजैव चित्रकैश्च समन्ततः । सुग्रीवकाञ्चनरवैः कलविङकरुतैस्तथा । कृजितान्तरशब्दैश्च सुरम्याणि च सर्वशः । वायुपुराण, 36, 2-4. gfra (beautifully painted) is the Common Kingfisher, a little jewel of a bird in its own class (Art. 41). It is, however, quite possible that far and fre are synonymous with each other and refer to the common Kingfisher alone. 33 BROAD-BILLS The Broad-bills, as their name indicates, are characterised by very broad and flattish bills. They are small birds (not over 10") but possess a beauti- ful plumage of striking colours-green, blue, black, and yellow. They are denizens of deep ever-green forests and insectivorous by habit. The Long- tailed Broad-bill is found throughout the Himalayas and Hodgson's Broad- bill is confined to the Eastern Himalayas as far west as Nepal. They buildi gigantic pear-shaped nests which are suspended from the end of a branch over-hanging a stream or pool of water. They are unwary birds and show no fear of man. They have a whistling call and are known as run (f) in Hindi though the name is more appropriate to the Long-tailed Broad-bill which is principally green and blue with some yellow and orange-yellow on the chin and throat. It has also a blue collar (f) and a pointed and graduated blue and green tail somewhat resembling the Parrot's. Its climbing habits when engaged in searching for insect food are very Parrot-like, and being familiar birds of the forests of Nepal and its foot-hills it must have had a Sanskrit name. I have, how- ever, not come across any for these birds, but the name for a certain plant could well have signified the Long-tailed variety, as birds and plants often share names between them. That it had a name after a Parrot is clear enough from the Hindi name of राइसुग्गा (राजि- शुक) from the collar consisting of a single blue stripe as against the two-or three-coloured collar of the Large Indian Parrot described as fariafa by poetin:- "तुण्डेराताम्रकुटिलैः पक्षैर्हरितकोमलः त्रिवर्णराजिभिः कण्ठैरेते मज्जुगिरः शुकाः" – २.६. The Parrot-bills were thus probably known as राजिशुक or शुकपुच्छक 34 WOODPECKERS 1. Woodpeckers are well-known Indian birds more than one species of which occur in every part of the country. Most of the species are adorned with a crimson crest in strong contrast with a pied and darker body-colour. दावघाट and काष्ठकुट्ट (v.I. काष्ठकूट) in Sansk and रुक्खकोट्ठक, कोट्ठ or कोट्टसातक (fr. Sk. वृक्षकुट्टक, कोष्ठ, or कोष्ठसाद ) in Pali are common names for all Wood- peckers. If the element are in trafare has anything do with the Vedic amfe for 'a musical rattle', this name should be regarded as primarily applicable to the 'drumming Woodpeckers' like the Great Slaty, the Scaly-bellied Green and the Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpeckers which produce a vibrating noise, "louder than a watchman's rattle", with quickly repeated blows of their beak on a branch or bamboo, and thence by extension to any Woodpecker. In its original sense, therefore, the name arafure would mean, 'one who makes music on wood or bamboo'. Generally speaking, however, no such distinction is observed and both the names are commonly applied to all birds of the family. One of them figures as काष्ठकूट in the चटकदम्पती story in the मित्रभेद section of पञ्चतन्त्र; as सतपत्त (शतपन) in the कुरंगमिग जातक (206) and as इनखकोट्ठकसकुण (वृक्षकुट्टक शकुन ) in कंदगलकजातक (210). वृक्षकुक्कुट in M. Williams is perhaps a mistake for वृक्षकुट्टक, cf. Pali एक्खकोटक for a Woodpecker. 2. The Great Slaty Woodpecker of the Himalayan Terai and nearby plains is a magnificent bird (20 inches) of an ashy grey plumage with a pale crimson patch below the eye and saffron-yellow, tinged with red, throat and foreneck. It is not a shy bird moves in parties of four to ten or twelve, and is very noisy. The call is a peculiar and quite distinctive whinnying note, and the drumming noise it makes "starts with slow very resonant taps which get faster and faster, finishing off with a series of rolling reverberations which can be heard at a great distance" (S. Baker), m means (i) the Large Indian Parrakeet, (ii) the Peacock, and (iii) a Wood- pecker. Evidently the term is both an epithet and a substantive specifying the largest bird in each group. मत्स्य पुराण mentions शतपन and काष्ठकुक्कुट (in- correct for as the Jungle fowl is separately mentioned as ) as different and the former is clearly meant for this grand Woodpecker. 1. 118, 49 & 53. 120 Birds in Sanskrit Literature It has been regarded as one of the auspicious birds of augury and its call or resonant drumming was a very welcome sound.: "मङ्गल्यार्थप्रदेः शब्दरन्ववर्तन्त सर्वशः । सादसा: शतपवाश्च हंसाच मधुसूदनम्" ॥ -महाभारत “चकोरैः शतपत्रैश्च भृङगराजैस्तथा शुकैः । श्रोवरम्यं सुमधुरं कूजद्भिवाप्यधिष्ठितम् ।" 4. 3. The beautiful Golden-backed Woodpecker (11") is one of the best known in the whole group as it is found all over the country from the Hima- layan foot-hills downwards. Its pied plumage, bright crimson crest, rich golden yellow back and the loud call never fail to attract the attention of persons with eyes and ears to see and listen. The कल्पद्रु synonymy includes two additional adnouns दारुण ( having a very powerful call ) and कर्बुराङग for a Woodpecker and these are not found in M. Williams and other lexicons. कर्बुर means 'variegated' and 'gold' so that the name or epithet कर्बुराङ्ग means having botha variegated and a golden body' and it is submitted that the name applies to this common bird. The subject of the following descriptive verse of अश्वघोष is most probably this Woodpecker:-- - मार्कण्डेयपुराण and महाभारत “रक्ताभिरग्रेषु च वल्लरीभिर्मध्येषु चामीकरपिञ्जराभिः । वैदूर्यवर्णाभिरुपान्तमध्येष्वलङ्क ता यत्र खगाश्चरन्ति ।। -सौन्दरनन्द The red crest ( रक्तवल्लरी) in front golden yellow in the middle, and brown elsewhere in the plumage hardly fits any other bird, and the poet appears purposely to have avoided the rather harsh sounding common names for it, and he certainly knew that the name शतपन belonged to a different variety of Woodpecker. 4. The Speckled Piculet (4 inches) and the Rufous Piculet (3.5 inches) are tiny Woodpeckers. • first is found throughout the Himalayas and the adjoining plains and the second from Nepal Eastwards. They haunt bamboos and bore holes in them for nests, the entrance hole being bored just below a node (Smythies). कीचक means 'bamboo and also a kind of bird' in M. Williams, and the कीचक birds of Rāmāyana and some of the Purānas are the beautiful little Piculets whose voices are a quaint little piping imitation (or querulous miniature) of their larger brethren (S. 2. 5.83-25, 3. 6.18-19:3,158, 52-54. See also महाभारत 3.108.8 9 139 86; पद्मपुराण, सुष्टिखण्ड 42.64. 10.30. Woodpeckers Baker). The following verses help to bring out the difference between कीचक as a bamboo-clump and कीचक as a bird:- Commentators and many lexicographers have missed the meaning of कोचक as a bird simply because their mind was obsessed with the dry bamboos of Kālidāsa in which holes had been bored by the black bees and which when blown over by a high breeze produced whistling sounds :- "शब्दायन्ते मधुरमनिलैः कीचकाः पूर्यमाणा: " (मेघदूत ) 10 5. Finally, I may be forgiven for the wild guess I offer below in respect of a couple of verses in the अथर्ववेद "कोयष्टिकंआर्जुनकैः शतपत्रैच कीचकः । एतैवान्यैश्च बहुभिर्नादितं तद्वनं महत् ॥" (रामायण) 8 "कीचकैश्च सुधोपैश्च कूजितं भ्रमरैरपि ।" (स्कन्दपुराण ) ● "तटे कीचकगुल्मैच तथा वृक्षैत्र शोभितम् ।" (Ibid) “झिल्लीशब्दश्च क्रेश्कारैः कीचकानां रवैस्तथा" (Ibid ) # "रवः कीचकवेणूनां मधुरीकृतकाननम् ।" ( ब्रह्माण्डपुराण ) ● ( AV. ) 11 In an attempt at interpreting the above verses the following may well be borne in mind:- "यवाश्वत्था न्यग्रोधा महावृक्षाः शिखण्डिनः तत्परेताप्सरसः प्रतिबुद्धा अभूतन यत्र वः प्रेखा हरिता अर्जुना उत यत्राघाटा: कर्कर्य: संवदन्ति तत्परेताप्सरसः प्रतिबुद्धा अभूतन" "क्रिमिजिन्वत्पृथिवि । यद् यदेजति प्रावृषि.... ( AV. ) 1 where insects and other creeping things so much in evidence in the wet season, are mentioned, and "ये गन्धर्वा अप्सरसो ये चाराया किमीदिनः।" (AV. ) 13 where certain malignities are described as गन्धर्वा and अप्सरस: In English translations of these Sūktas, the terms गन्धवं and अप्सरस् are 5. 3.75.12. 6 वंशाखमाहात्म्य 18.19. 7. 8 121 18.22. 18.27. 9. मध्यम भाग 22.50. 10. 56. 11. IV.37. 4-5. 12. XII.1.46. 13. XII.1.50. 122 Birds in Sanskrit Literature taken too literally whereas the Hindi rendering¹4 regards AV. IV. 37 as a charm or as prescribing means against the swarms of various tropical insects which invaded the homes of the Indo-Aryans in the evening during the watery (rainy) season. This, it is submitted, is probably the more correct interpretation, having particular regard to the general tenor of this and other similar sūktas of this Veda. It must however be stated that my agreement with the ends here, as my own rendering follows a line. different from theirs. (the The nuisance of insect-pests must have been very great indeed in Vedic times when the country around was full of jungles and marshes which are the great breeding grounds of all sorts of insect life. Stinking bugs and flies e evil-smelling and seem (Pentatomidae and genus Chrysopa respectively) to have been euphemistically addressed as af,15 and the buzzing (singing) mosquitos, beetles and other insects and moths, swarming and dancing around light and fire, as are. These were driven off or were kept away with the strong-smelling herbs and incense named earlier in the same Sūkta. The terms हरिता, अर्जुना, and आघाटा would seem to be insect- destroying birds fer (Hindi ) the beautiful Chloropsis; white', Hindi guer, i.e., milk-white and ar, the White bird in the verse from Rāmāyaṇa quoted above), the white Paradise Flycatcher and आघाट (दावघाट) the drumming and rattling Woodpecker. All three frequent large trees in search of insect food and have musical or semi-musical voices (-e a musical instrument); Cf. RV. 11.43.3. where the root in fr is used in association with as a bird's voice as in the above verses from the AV. Again the dipping and undulating flight of the Woodpeckers and the brilliantly white Paradise Flycatchers with their long trailing ribbons gives an impression as if the birds are moving on swings (). In short the charm draws an inviting picture of the large fig trees, and asks the various insects with the flattering epithets of अपारस to be well advised (प्रतिबुद्धा अभूतन) to visit the trees where swings and music await them (to be, of course, gobbled up there by the birds). The principles underlying the charm are deceit and flattery:- and "प्रियवाक्यप्रदानेन सर्वे तुष्यन्ति जन्तवः । "" 6. This digression is just intended o secure, if possible, a most ancient literary pedigree to a Woodpecker (ure). At any rate the basic idea of the charm put forth by the is worth investigation at the hands of Vedic Scholars. 14. Published by the Svadhyaya Mandala of Satara. 13. In the same way they have been ironically given the names of sweet-smelling herbs. and herbal products, औक्षगन्धि, प्रमन्दनी etc. In the alternative these drugs also were used with the strong-smelling art to drive off the insects-evil beings-as assumed by सायणाचार्य who renders गन्धर्वाप्सन्स: as उपद्रवकारी or malignant beings and according to him the words हरिता: and अर्जुना qualify प्रेङ खा.. 16. Compare also आराध्यमानो नितरां कपोतोऽपि हि तुष्यति-परिशिष्ट पर्वन्, 3.6 कपोत according to tradition is an inauspicious bird-See Art. 35 BARBETS 1. The Barbets are essentially birds of the tree-tops, from whence they utter their loud monotonous call-notes for hours on end; but owing to their green or greenish plumage blending with the foliage they are difficult to see, and for this reason few people know them by sight. All nod their heads in a peculiar manner in the act of calling. Sanskrit f for 'a kind of bird', if derived from its habit of eating for (figs and other fruits), may well apply to the Barbets as a group of fruit-eating birds, but if the name is after the bird's call it would be specific for a particular Barbet. 2. The Great Himalayan Barbet (13") is olive-brown streaked with greenish-yellow above, and roughly the same colour below, striped yellow and brown on the sides, blue down the centre with a scarlet patch under the tail. Seen from a distance it appears to be a dark dully-coloured bird. Purely arboreal, it is best known by its call, 'a loud melancholy mee-ou or pyillo' (Whistler), and according to Hume "a plaintive call, till- low, till-low, till-low...uttered a chorus, striking and pleasant".¹ Stuart Baker on the other hand, renders the call as a triple 'pio-pio-pio'. It is l-kno how difficult it is ender bird-voices into human syllables and no two persons agree in their syllabification. Bearing this fact in mind and the nature of the bird's call as syllabified above it is not at all difficult. to see that Hindi मियोली, हो and चैंपला and Sansk. पिप्पल for this Barbet are of an onomatopoetic origin as indeed the following Hindi verse would show: "कहत 'पीपली पीपलो' नितहि चैंपला आई"-रसनिधि Hindi , from far and a call, clearly refers to the triple 'pio- pio- pio' rendering of S. Baker, while Sans. fe is a happy blend of the bird's call as well as its fruit-eating habit. 3. In भारतमंजरी, शान्तिपर्व (Verse 1676) क्षेमेन्द्र says that an oil-thief is reborn as a पिप्पल bird (“पिप्पलस्तलहरणात्") which would seem to be in keeping with the bird's olive or yellow-brown plumage...the colour of oil. It is one of the birds that were eaten in the long past: 1. "Stray Feathers", Vol. VIII. Birds in Sanskrit Literature 46 The बटहा of चरक (बट a - "चटकान् भृङ्गराजांश्च तथा पिप्पलकानपि" – भेलसंहिता, p. fig-berry and to destroy; Prakrit वट + भक्ष?) appears to be the sameas पिप्पल. मजुलीयक of कल्पद्रुकोश ("मञ्जुलोयक मञ्जुनादो") and अष्टासंग्रह 1.7, and मञ्जुलीतक of मत्स्यपुराण, 118, 55, refer like fe in a dual sense to the bird's habit of keeping to dense foliaged tree-tops (-a bower + to disappear or conceal) and its sweet call-notes (-pleasing). Hindi fratet for this Barbet is very close - farateft. to these names मंजुली मंथली 124 4 The Northern Green Barbet (10.5") and the Lineated Barbet (11") are generally of a green colour and both have a similar call-kutur-kutur- kutur and they go by the name get in the North as well as in the South and in Ceylon. These are undoubtedly the ge birds of the ar. afar where one of them forms a trio of very noisy birds dedicated to the deities presiding over horse-races:- "क्वयिः कुटरुर्दात्यौहस्ते वाजिनाम् ।"-24.39. afa is the Screech Owl or the Noisy Common Owlet and the White-breasted Water-hen, and the noisy character of all three is typical of the tumultuous applause and commotion attending a horse-race. The Blue-throated Barbet (9) with its 'took-a-rook', 'took-a-rook' is known as ge in the vernacular and would be included in the ge group. This noisy Barbet has, as it were, the fire in its throat and has therefore been consecrated to afta2- "अग्नये कुटरून्" – V.S. 24, 23. It has 5. The Crimson-throated Barbet (6) thick-billed, gaudy and dumpy looking green bird of the size of the Common Sparrow. loud, monotonous ringing call tuk, tuk, tuk,...., as of a distant copper- smith hammering on his metal (Salim Ali), heard during the hotter parts of the day. The regular beat of its notes combined with its head-movements, now in one direction and now in another is very suggestive of a little drum. mer-boy playing alternately on a pair of small drums and that is how it is called डिण्डिमाणवक in सुश्रुत and डिण्डिमानक (v.l. दण्डिमाणक) in चरक from fefe a drum or in Prakrit 'bell-metal- ware' and 'Worker in Brass's and माणवक a small boy. Prakrit णंदमाणक and Pali दिदिम (दिदिम ? –डिण्डिम) refer to it. Hindi ar or a (coppersmith) corresponds to the meaning of the word fefe in Prakrit, whence its popular English name, 'the Coppersmith'. 6. The showy appearance of this little green bird, with patches of red, yellow and black about the head and breast accounts for its selection for the next birth of a jewel-thief in fa under the name of we', a gold-smith: 2. See para Art. 27. 3. पाइय सदमद्दण्णवो. Barbets मणिमुक्ताप्रवालानि हत्वा लोभेन मानवः । विविधानि न रत्नानि जायते हेमकर्तृषु ॥ 12.61 Similarly the (cf. Barbet: 125 a gold-smith) of the following is this जीवजीवकनादैव हेमकानां च नादितः । Both these names are very close to Hindi the bird though the former gives it a higher status. वायुपुराण, 36.4 (Copper-smith) for 36 HONEY-GUIDE A single species of this bird, the yellow-backed Honey-Guide, occurs in the Himalayas at two places only, viz., in Sikkim and near Murree and Abbotabad where, again, it is very rare. No Sanskrit name is available for it. 37 CUCKOOS The birds of this family are divided into two groups, the one arboreal and parasitic, and the other terrestrial and non-parasitic. A. PARASITIC CUCKOOS 1. The parasitic nature of Cuckoos has long been known in India. as we find one named as अन्यवाप in the वाज, संहिता, 24.34. Other common names are or . These are usually applied to the Himalayan Cuckoo and the Koel but the expression fa evidently includes the group as well:-- “धन्यं धिनोति वचनैः श्रवणानुकूलै : अन्यं दुनोति परुषः परपुष्टजाति: " भिक्षाटनकाव्य, 27.4, काव्यमाला, Pt. 12. In this verse love-sick person complains principally against the Cuckoo but generalises against the whole tribe including the Hawk-Cuckoos, the Pied Crested-Cuckoo, etc. whose calls are not welcome to a separated lover. Cuckoos other than the Black Koel cuckold small birds of different kinds, e.g., Babblers, Chats, Pipits, Wagtails, etc., and knowledge of this fact on the part of the ancients is fully reflected in the names given above and in the half verse from a given below:-- "प्रागन्तरिक्षगमनात् स्वमपत्यजातं अन्यैद्विजैः परभृताः खलु पोषयन्ति" - 5.22. The Koel of the plains on the other hand victimises the common House- Crow and occasionally the Jungle-Crow, and is therefore called The male bird's loud call of 'has given us names like etc., for it and the name g¹ for the night of the New- moon which is supposed to be as black as the bird itself. Sanskrit appears to have been formed on a false analogy with the Prakrit 1 AV.7.47.1. For other derivations of see, 6.11.23. . , 128 Birds in Sanskrit Literature frever though, independently of the latter, it can stand by itself as "Crow- tailed" which, however, is quite colourless and uninteresting. the female Koel, (fathe Crow's father's sister) for on the other hand, seems to be an excellent name based upon the bird's parasitism. In India a sister often leaves her little children with a brother. for rearing them and this is exactly how the female Cuckoo deals with her supposed brother, the Crow, and hence her nick-name, 'the Crow's aunt' The Koel shares the names afer and fire with the European and the Asiatic Cuckoos which breed in the Himalayas and, very sparingly, on the hills in certain parts of the country. It is therefore difficult to say. to the Koel. whether a given reference is to the Cuckoo proper 2 अन्यवाग in "art"-V.S., 24.34. would be the Cuckoo if the Samhita was compiled in the North-West, for the Koel is non-existent in the extreme North-West and rare in the Punjab, but if the compila- tion took place in the art, it is more probably the Koei. The reason for the dedication of the bird to the deity presiding over the Half-months is apparently the fact that the bird performs only half its part in reproduc- tion and the particular name chosen emphasises this. Spring. 3. The poets of Kashmir and others describing Himalayan scenery (e.g. in the Puranas and other literature) have mentioned the Cuckoo by names like कलकण्ठ, पिक, परभूत, परपुष्टा, and पुंस्कोकिल and these names in the particular context refer to the European or the Asiatic Cuckoo both of which have a similar and very sonorous call of two notes 'ku-koo'. In "कामाय पिक:" V.S., 24.29 पिक is one of these and the name, used purposely (f), must refer to the sweet amorous voice of the bird in Poetic names like and would again seem to refer to these two birds as their voice is more melodious than the Koel's; Cf. "gegee the extro कोकिलो... अतिवियमधुरगिरो" Kunala Jataka, pleasant and full-throated voice of the geef (Cuckoo with spotted or variegated plumage; पुष्प a spot, cf. फुस्सरथ for पुष्परथ, v.1. पुष्परथ) is inentioned. Both the birds are grey above and barred or spotted white below and have been distinguished from the Koel (काल, कृष्ण or श्यामकोकिल) as श्वेतकोकिल :- "भास्करोदयकालोऽयं गता भगवती निशा। Cuckoo birds असौ सुकृष्णो विहगः कोकिलस्तात कूजति" - रामायण, 2.52.2 "देवलोकोद्भवाः श्वेता विलेपुः कोकिलास्तदा"-हरिवंश, 2.88.69 In the आवश्यक सूत्र, a Jain work by मलयगिर्याचार्य, two. ('दो कोइला') are one of the ten different items seen in a dream, and the scholiast explains the birds to be a श्वेत कोकिल and a विचित्र कोकिल श्वेत कोकिल being the same as फुस्स or चित्र कोकिल in Pali the latter विचित कोकिल is either a mistake for कृष्ण कोकिन or is to be rendered as वि not चित्र, variegated i.e. of a uniform colour viz. black, or again it may 2. "देवलोकोद्भवाः in bred in the Himalayas, देवलोक. Cuckoos refer to one of the Malkohas which have a variegated plumage. In the Kunala Jataka, the Koel is called and the Asiatic Cuckoo. फुस्स कोकिल फुस्स* is Pali for Sansk. पुष्प and has taken the place of पुण्फ (i.e. पुष्प) due to an erroncous substitution of पुष्य for पुष्प, e.g.in पुष्यरच चित्र कोकिल is a synonym for it in the Pali-English Dictionary (PTS. Edition). Hindi फुफु, पुफु or पुड्डुपु fr. पुहुप-पुष्प a flower, for the same bind is a more correct form of पुण्फ (पुष्प). 129 4. The Himalayan Cuckoo, breeding in the Himalayas from Kashmir Eastwards, resembles Asiatic Cuckoo in coloration and size but has a different voice. The male has a spring-song consisting of four dull booming notes, 'hud-hud-hud-hud' similar in tone to the call of the Hoopoe (Smy- thies). This Cuckoo would therefore seem to be the ggf, a ga bird of चरक. "दुन्दुभिः दुन्दुभिध्वनि:" is the definition given for it in the कल्पद्रु कोश, and gf is also a small child's drum in Prakrit. The name is thus fully. descriptive of the bird. This is apparently the Cuckoo whose voice has been described by जिनसेन as "कोकिलानकनिस्वन:” (like the sound of a drum) in (जैन) आदि पुराण 33.89. In the preceding verse he uses the common classical expression for the Koel. The name gf may also apply to the Indian Cuckoo which too has a similar call of four melodious notes, "bo-ko-ta-ko", capable of being syllabified as "pu-pu, pu-pu" as well. मद्दालक (from मर्दल, a drum) is a kind of Himalayan bird in वेस्संतर verse 2099 and from the similarity of the name to gf it may also be for the Himalayan Cuckoo. Two other bird-names have been derived from the names of different kinds of drum डिण्डिमाणवक (डिण्डिम- माणवक), the Little Barbet, and पाणविक (पणव), the Stone Plover-Sce Arts. 35 and 64. 5. No description of in Sanskrit literature, but refers to the Sweet Song of the "thrice welcome darling of the spring"-the Cuckoo or the Koel, the age of India. :- “कुसुमजन्म ततो नवपल्लवास्तदनुषट्पदकोकिलकूजितम् । इति यथाक्रममाविरभून्मधुर्दुमवतीभवतीर्य वनस्थलीम् ।। रघुवंश, 9.26. I give below just a few examples illustrate the knowledge of the ancients regarding some of their peculiarities, e.g.-- (i) Cuckoos do not pair for the breeding season like other birds and promiscuity is very common with them (Jerdon) and this fact not only underlies the Prakrit adnoun g (Sk. aig a libertine) for the male Cuckoo but also the punishment prescribed for a man who has insul- ted his brother's wife. He is to be reborn as a so that he may 3. Is it possible that फुस्स कोकिल is the Pali rendering of Sansk. पुंस्कोकिल ? If so, the latter would be specific for the Himalayan Cuckoo though the later poets extended. term to the male of the Koel well. 130 Birds in Sanskrit Literature suffer the torture and humiliation of seeing his own sweetheart being pur- sued by others:- "भ्रातृभार्या तु पापात्मा यो धर्षयति मोहितः । पुंस्कोकिलत्वमाप्नोति सोऽपि संवत्सरं नृप । महाभारत, 13.111.76 (ii) Those who have listened to the first broken and incomplete notes of the Cuckoo in early spring will appreciate the following :- "कण्ठेषु स्खलितं गतेऽपि शिशिरे पुंस्कोकिलानां रुतम् ।" शाकुन्तल, 6.4 "गायन्तो गलरागमङकुररस तस्य चञ्चुक्षते- श्च्योतभ्दिः शिशिरोपरोधशिथिलं पुष्णन्ति पुंस्कोकिलाः ।” "प्रथममन्यभृताभिरुदीरिताः सुभद्राधनञ्जय, 2.9 प्रविरला इव मुग्धवधूकथाः ।" रघुवंश, 9.34 As the season advances the voice becomes fuller and sweeter "चूताङकुरास्वादकषायकण्ठः पुंस्कोकिलो यन्मधुरं चुकूज" कुमारसंभव, 3.32 adding character to mountain scenery:- “प्रमत्तपुंस्कोकिलसंप्रलापैहिमालयोऽतीव तदा रराज ।" ब्रह्मपुराण, 36.116. No poetic embellishment however can match the following simple state- ment about the peculiar charm that the Cuckoo lends to sylvan surroundings "कोकिलानां रुतैः पुण्यैः सर्वत्र मधुरायते।" पद्मपुराण, भूमिखंड, 24.38 6. Cuckoos whose calls are different from those of the birds men- tioned above are: (i) the Hawk Cuckoo, the Common and the Large; (ii) the Plaintive Cuckoo; (iii) the Banded Bay Cuckoo; (iv) the Violet Cuckoo; (v) the Emerald Cuckoo; (vi) the Drongo Cuckoo; (vii) the Pied Crested Cuckoo and (viii) the Red-Winged Crested Cuckoo. The first three and No. (vii) go under the common name of चातक in Sans- krit, as their notes are plaintive in character. The breeding time for these often runs into the rainy season and the males are then very vocal. This coupled with the fact that they derive all the moisture they need from their soft food consisting of caterpillars and various kinds of figs etc. and are therefore not seen to visit the water, has given rise to the popular fiction that they drink only rain-drops and that ground water is harmful to them —“ घरणीपतितं तोयं चातकानां सृजाकरम्. Hence also the conceit that their persistent calls are an appeal to the rain-cloud for a few drops to cool their parched throats. This interesting belief has given us some very beautiful अन्योक्ति type of poetry. 4. Quoted by M. R. Kale in his notes on रघुवश 5.17. Cuckoos 131 7. पंपका are certain birds in the बेस्संतर जातक, पम्पा in Prakrit means पिपासा or thirst; and पम्पा is the name of a lake and a river. The word पंपक would thus appear to have some connection with water or the desire for it, and पंपका is probably the Pali equivalent of चातका: which are supposed to be ever thirsty. No other name for the चातक appears in the long lists of birds occurring in the Jātaka and it is far too important a bird to be omitted. कल्पद्रुकोश gives a mixed list of synonyms for the चातक :- "अथ चातक: घनाखच वापीहः सारङगो मेघजीवनः । वर्षप्रियः विशडख: स्यात्स्तोको बभ्रुहरीतक: कपिञ्जलोऽपि हारीतः तञ्जलो, " and looking to some of them, like सारङ्ग, बघ, कपिज्जल, हारीत, etc. which clearly indicate the colour of the plumage, it is impossible to say that they all belong to only one kind of bird. The list certainly includes the names. of several kinds of चातक. Thus धनाख, वापीह (Hindi, पपीहा), कपिज्जलs, and बघु (Cf. wt for it in Bengal) are clearly for the very noisy Hawk Cuckoos which are of a grey-brown colour ( बधू, पिज्जर); वर्षप्रिय, वरिषाप्रिय (M.W.) and विशख (having a triple note) are for the Plaintive Cuckoo which is known as पौस्या or पाउस्या in Marathi (from Prakrit पाउस and Sanskrit प्रावृष, प्रावृषिक) and has a triple call of 'whe-whe-ew' or 'pi pi-yu'; सारग (Pied or variegated) is the larger form of the Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus) and finally हारीत and हरीतक (of a green colour) clearly point to the Emerald Cuckoo, for हारीत is also a name for the Emerald Dove and the Green Pigeon. Its call, according to S. Bakers is “a shrill but not unmusical succession of three notes". The Violet Cuckoo occurs in Assam but not to the west of it. It is generally a silent bird and has no Sanskrit name for itself. 8. शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि has "राजपट्टिका चातकखगे" and the name राजपट्टिका (adorned with bars or stripes) clearly refers to the Banded Bay Cuckoo. which is barred brown and rufous all over including the head and the face. The call notes of this bird are not unlike those of the Plaintive Cuckoo but it also has another call resembling the Cuckoo's 'Bo-ko- ta-ko', though much higher. 9. The following verse from the महाभारत mentions the bird प्रियक with चातक : "प्रियकैनातकैश्चैव तथान्यै विविधैः खगैः ।" 3.158.53 Now प्रियक also means a black bee' or भृङ्ग and भुग is also the Drongo. The Drongo Cuckoo "is remarkable for its extra-ordinary resem- 5. 6. कपिजल क ईषत् पिज्जर वर्ण: ? Second Edition of F.B.I. 132 Birds in Sanskrit Literature blance, both in structure and coloration, to the common Black Drongo. It differs from all other Cuckoos in the shape of the tail, which is very long and forked......". "Its call is a most human whistle of six notes in ascend- ing scale and it also utters a very plaintive double note, sounding like "wee-whip" and very like a breeding call of the common Black Drongo. Its flight also is generally dipping and buoyant, much like the flight of that bird...." (Ibid). faus (fa fa ), therefore being a synonym of would seem to have been very appropriately chosen for the Drongo Cuckoo. It also means a musical instrument, perhaps some sort of a whistle, so named after the bird's voice: cf. and ear, both as birds and musical instruments. 10. The Hawk Cuckoo is one of the commonest birds of India and some of its names, given in the have already been men- tioned above. The older names for it are ag and as seen in the list of age birds in and respectively. The name ge is of frequent occurrence. in Puranic and other literature and at times it becomes difficult to say what bird is exactly meant, for the term also means at least a couple of water-birds. The Lexicons also give quite a number of so-called names for the Hawk Cuckoo which are really in the nature of descriptive epithets, and qualified with one of them at a time should be specific for a particular bird. In poetry, however, where 'brevity is the soul of wit' or, perhaps, of mystification, the epithets are dropped and the bare homonym is given. ("मादक वाल्यूहे"माञ्चति वर्षागमे हृष्यतीति – शब्दकल्पद्रुम) one of such epithets and as it means 'exhilarating, gladdening', it should refer to the Hawk Cuckoo whose voice is appre- ciated in India and therefore figures very largely in erotic poetry. Referring to these birds calling all around in the Himalayas Herbert Stevens characterises the chorus a "pandemonium which reigns all day long and throughout the long hours of the night" which may be contrasted with a healthy appreciation of the same by the hardy ancients of India: “दात्यूहव्यूहकेलीकलितकुहकुहा रावरम्या वनान्ताः।” "सलीलदात्यूहसमूहनिस्वनाः।" The voice of the Hawk Cuckoo never caused 'brain-fever' to the nature- loving except, of course, the love-lorn: बालरामायण, 1.63 विक्रमाङ्कदेवचरित, 11.15 "अशंकितैः पक्षिगणैः प्रगीतैरिव च प्रभो । केकाभिर्नीलकण्ठानां दात्यूहानां च कूजितैः" म. भारत, 15.27.9 7. F.B.I. 2nd Edition. 8. Other epithets are considered in Art. 58: Cf. rart for the Kocl. 9. Journal of B.N.H.S.: XXH.680. Cuckoos “प्रमत्तदात्यहस्तैश्च वल्गुभि:"-मत्स्यपुराण, 68.1 "एष दात्यूहको इष्टो रम्ये मां वननिर्झरे । प्रणदन् मन्मथाविष्टं शोचविष्यति लक्ष्मण ॥” रामायण, 4.1.24 and the name It was also a favourite cage-bird as ter is represented in the , wishing an affectionate goodbye to her pet-birds including a दात्यूही (Act. 6.27); Cf. also the idiomatic phrase, "कक्षा पञ्जर दात्यूह" (Act.8.72) for a person completely under one's control. 11. वर्षाहू is a bird in "वर्षाहू ऋतूनाम्" वाज. सं. 24.38 means 'rain-invoker'. It is evidently one of the Câtakas. An alternative form 'af' occurs in the bird-list quoted from a by weer in his commentary on fgr 85.28. This name is on a par with names like fr and considered above, and all three remind one of probably a bird answered back by another bird, ff in the aft hymn of RV.:- "वृषाखाय वदते यदुपावति चिच्चिक: 10 आघाटीभिरिव धावयन् अरण्यानिर्महीयते।" RV. 10.146 are also would therefore appear to be a kind of , and having regard to the loud and persistent call of the Hawk Cuckoo, it is probably entitled to claim all these names (except ifa) in its own right. 133 12. From amongst the different birds going under the name of only two appear to be the favourites of Sanskrit Poets, the Hawk Cuckoo, always mentioned as चातक and rarely as art, and the larger Pied Crested Cuckoo, called more correctly as ar than as a though it is the of many a verse in af and other poetry. To the poets any is simply a and they do not seem to worry what particular kind of bird they are actually referring to. In this way even the name er has lost its identity. frre, however, would seem, for once at least, to have observed the distinction. Two examples from the age should suffice:- (i) "मन्दं मन्दं नुदति पवनचानुकूलो यथा त्वां वामयायं नदति मधुरं चातकस्ते सगन्धः ।" ( v.J. सगर्व:) "नीपं द्वष्ट्वा हरितकपिशं केसरैरर्धरूढैः आविर्भूतप्रथममुकुलाः कन्दलीश्र्वानुकच्छम् । दग्धारण्येष्वधिकसुरभि गन्धमाघ्राय चोर्व्याः सारङ्गास्ते जललवमुचः सूचयिष्यन्ति मार्गम् ॥" In the first example is most probably the Hawk Cuckoo with its powerful and persistent call justifying the use of the epithet : or 10. For fuf see Art. 45. Birds in Sanskrit Literature

which would be out of place for the plaintive calls of other

Câtakas. In the second, are is clearly the Pied Crested Cuckoo, at least for purposes of the last verse where the cloud is called जललवमुच् to suit the 'drop-craving' bird-'. er has three other specific senses- “सारङ्गश्चातके मुद्धगे कुरङ्गे च मतङ्गजे- " विश्वप्रकाश, and it would appear that the term is to be taken in all its four senses-one for everyone of the four lines. The fortree is also called tor , 'beloved of the large Black Bee', two varieties of which are known as er (variegated) viz. (i) Xylocopa aestuans and (ii) X. basalis, as both of them have white or yellow pubescence on their backs. The first is found throughout India and the second in North India. The Bee-lines making for the a trees are supposed to lead the way for the Cloud. eff is a kind of deer, probably the Spotted Deer (ft) which is er in Sanskrit, and a herd of these, advancing to feed upon the newly risen (kind of lily plants which sprout up with the first showers), are the art: under- stood in the second line. The third refers to elephants, with reddish-white marks (or) on their bodies and hence called ar, sniffing their way in search of new grass; Cf. the following references to this same habit of elephants:- 134 “त्वग्निष्यन्दोच्छ्वसितवसुधागन्धसम्पर्करम्यः स्रोतोरन्ध्रध्वनितमधुरं दन्तिभिः पीयमानः ।" "तदाननं मृत्सुरभि क्षितीश्वरो रहस्युपाघ्राय न तृप्तिमाययौ । करीव सिक्त पृषतैः पयोमुच शुचिव्यपाये वनराजिपल्बलम् ॥” मेघदूत, 44. रघुवंश, 3.3. for adopts this interpretation of the verse in his com- mentary on ga and I submit, correctly. The plaintive wail of Rama for Sita is likened to the persistent call-notes of the ar "एवमादिनरश्रेष्ठो विललाप नृपात्मजः । विहम इव सारङ्गः सलिलं विदशेश्वरात् ॥" रामायण, 4.30.13 The smaller form of the Pied Crested Cuckoo is permanently resident in Ceylon and part of the Madras Presidency. The larger form, which is mig- ratory, occurs in the rest of India, and "there is reason to believe that it winters in Africa" (Whistler). Salim Ali also remarks that "the larger 'Pica' is a rains (breeding) visitor to the rest of our area (i.e. excluding Ceylon and South India), presumably from Africa". He adds further that "The arrival our midst of the larger migrant race coincides with the onset of the S-W Monsoon". The areas thus moves northward in India with the Monsoon and the poetical suggestion of the birds acting as Cuckoos guides to the Cloud in his north-bound journey is based on this observed fact of nature. The bees, deer and wild elephants are introduced to com- plete the picture. 135. 13. These birds leave the country with their young after they have been reared by their foster parents by the end of October and are not seen again in the country for nearly six months, i.e. till about June. They were therefore supposed to spend this time out of sight and hence the name feat (one living in heaven, Himalayas or the sky). Belief in the invisibility of the white Wagtail for a period of five months, April to August, due to its growing a crest offers a good parallel to the above (Art. 26). fere has incorporated this belief regarding the are in the follow- ing verse where king g's sky-going chariot encounters the birds above the clouds:-- “अयमरविवरेभ्यश्चातकं निष्पतद्भिः हरिभिरचिरभासां तेजसा चानुलिप्तः । गतमुपरिघनानां वारिगर्भोदराणां पिशुनयति रथस्ते सीकरक्लिन्ननेमिः ॥” शाकुन्तल, " 7.7 It is worth noting in this connection that the whole of the action of the Sixth Act, the immediately following journey of king ger to 's heaven, his brief stay there and return (Act 7) take place in the spring season, and the existence of the birds in the region beyond the clouds coincides with the absence of the Pied Crested Cuckoos from the country below. Additional support for this view is found in another mythological name for the चातक, viz., त्रिशंकु (शब्दकल्पद्रुम and शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि) based on the Puránic story of a king of that name who being unable to go straight to heaven was changed into a constellation and remained suspended midway between heaven and earth through the power of sage विश्वामिन विशङ्क, is also the migratory Wagtail according to M. Williams. The Mt. Everest Expedition of 1922 saw this Cuckoo in the Himalayas at an elevation of 14000 feet. It is a free indeed and fre had good reason to place it there. 14. The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo is resident in the Himalayas and in South India. Its voice is a very loud, harsh scream, utterred cons- tantly during the breeding season (May and June in the Western Hima- layas) and fairly often at other times. Since its call is neither sonorous nor plaintive in character it cannot be termed a चातक किडर means 11. Kalidasa seems to have borrowed the idea of the birds' passing between the spokes of a fast-moving wheel from the T (1.33.4) where is said to have re- duced himself in size and got through a fast-moving wheel to bring away the strongly guar- ded अमृत. 12. J.B.N.H.S. XXX, 682. 136 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 'a Cuckoo' and also the 'red colour and it is suggested that because of the presence of red in the wings and the shape of the body and parasitic habits being those of a Cuckoo, the name fefgt suits this bird more than any other Cuckoo. सामधानमनसा" can 15. चातक in the well known verse of तु हरि beginning "रे चातक only be the Hawk Cuckoo which calls aloud and incessantly. Similarly the चातक of the following verse is again the same as the सारङ्ग चातक visits North India only during the rains:- "ग्रीष्मे ग्रीष्मतरः करैदिनकृता दग्धोऽपि यश्चातकः । त्वां ध्यायन् पन वासरान्कथमपि द्वाषीयसो नीतवान् ॥" भामिनीविलास, 1.33. I may here point out a slight error of interpretation of the following half verse:- "तरिकं प्रोषितभतूं वध्य पटहो हा हा हताश बकः। प्रावृट् प्रावृडिति ब्रवीति शब्धीः क्षारं क्षते प्रक्षिपन् । मृच्छकटिक, 5.18 Here the guilty bird calling "शाबूट्" "प्राबूटू" is of course a चातक for which the poet has used "ब" as a term of contempt and abuse, but Prof. R. B. Karmarkar holds too literally that the "wretched heron ('Stork' per R. B. Raddy and V. G. Paranjape) calling "प्राबूट्" "प्राबूट्" बक- Stork, Heron or the white Ibis-is in the first place too mean a bird to be seriously mentioned in describing the noble sentiment of love. Secondly, the Storks are voiceless; no Heron calls loudly enough or persistently, and the White Ibis just booms. It is only the birds belonging to the "" or "मङ्गस्य पक्षिण: like Swan, Goose, Flamingo, Peacock, Cuckoo and चातक that have been referred to in love poetry. Again, S. P. Pandit, quoted with approval by M. R. Kale in his notes on रघुवंश 5.17 is cate- gorical that the Crested Cuckoo has a long bow-shaped crest, pulled back and held fast by an arrow-like attachment which prevents any downward movement of the bird's head and bill, and it is therefore impossible for it to drink any but rain-water. I need hardly add that the idea is fantastic in the extreme, and the चातक birds have as free a neck and head as any other bird and there is nothing in their bodily structure to prevent them from drinking ground-water if they want to. Pandit was possibly misled by a verse like the following :- "नीलाब्जपुञ्जरजसारुणितान्विमुच्य स्वच्छाधाधिकरसानपि वारिराशीन् । 13. See derivation of किङ्किरात and other terms with the same base in शब्दकल्पद्रुग The word also means the Asoka tree which bears red flowers, and the red or yellow amaran- thus. Cuckons यश्चातकः पिबति बारिधरोदबिन्दून् मन्ये तदानतिभयाच्छिरसोऽभिमानी" ॥ सुभाषितावलि, 679 Not only Pandit but a lesser poet also has misunderstood the above verse when borrowing from it. 137 Like the कोकित there is ample poetic coinage for the चातक as well, e.g. मेघचिन्तक, घनतील, कुल, घाराट, जल, pic. B. NON-PARASITIC CUCKOOS 1. This group includes the Coucal (Crow-Pheasant), the Malkohas. and the Sirkeers, commonly known as Ground-Cuckoos as all of them are of terrestrial habits. The Coucal has a shining black body and chestnut- red wings; the large Green-billed Malkoha has a green gloss on the upper plumage and a hooked green bill; and the Sirkeers also have green in the plumage but have red and yellow parrot-like bills. All have long heavy. tails. 2. The Coucal is one of the best known birds of the country with a characteristic call, a deep and rather sonorous hoop-hoop-hoop, heard at all times of the day but more often early in the morning. As the calling progresses, the number of hoops frequently increases and sometimes as many as twenty-five hoops are uttered at a stretch. The oldest name for it is कुमकुम placed in the fवकर group of birds in चरक as it hunts mostly on the ground for insects, caterpillars, grasshoppeis, lizards, small snakes etc. Whistler notes that due to its heavy build, slow gait and the habit of feeding on the ground it is often mistaken for a game bird (faft). Other names for it are कुलालकुक्कुट, कुनालकुमकुमकुद, कुलाल, बुकुभ, and कुम्भ. Lexical synonymies are as under:-- वा (i) "कुम्भकारकुफ्फुटस्तु कुक्कुभः कुहरुस्वनः" कुम्भेति शब्दं करोति कुम्भकारः स कुक्कुट इव कुम्भकारकुक्कुटः कोकतेकुक्कुभः कुकु शब्देन भाति इति कुहक इति स्वनोऽस्यकुहुकस्वनः।" अभिधानचिन्तामणि "कुलालो धूक पक्षिणि कुक्कुभे"-हेमचन्द्र. (ii) (iii) "कुलाल कुक्कुट प्राः कुक्कुभं कुहकस्वरम्"हारावली. (iv) "कुलाल: कुम्भकारे स्यात् ककुभे (कुकुभे?) कौशिके" पेस्सूर, (v) "कुकुभः पक्षिविशेषः”–उणादि भोजीवानि The word "कुक्कुट" in the above compotind names simply means a bird' in general as in प्रासादकुक्कुट for a Pigcon. कुसाल or कुम्भकार means 'potter' and the sound of tapping or blowing into an empty eartherr jar seems to 14. Author of verses 1746 and 1786, in garfirarafia. 138 Birds in Sanskrit Literature have offered an excellent parallel for the voice of two birds ( i ) a particular kind of hooting owl, known as कुलाल and कुम्भोलूक ( Art, 49 ) and (ii) the Coucal, named कुम्भ in मत्स्यपुराण 118, 51; cf. रिक्तकुम्भ, 'voice of an empty vessel'– M.W. an 3. The identity of कुलालकुक्कुट and कुलालकुक्कुम together with the splitting up of the former into "कुलाल कुक्कुटं "in the हारावली has led incorrect synonymy of कुक्कुट with कुक्कुम though these two names standing by themselves are altogether different, कुक्कुट being the Common or the Wild Cock and कुक्कुम the Coucal; Cf. जलकुक्कुम for the Water Cock which too has a booming call. None of the important lexicons like अमरकोश, अभिधान चिन्तामणि, विकाण्डशेष, कल्पद्रु कोश धन्वन्तरिनिघण्टु and राजनिघण्टु mentions कुक्कुभ asa synonym for कुब कुट, cock. On the other hand there is literary evidence to show that कुक्कुम is quite a different bird from the Jungle Fowl (कुक्कुट ) :- "कोकिलांच्छतपत्रांत्र सकोयष्टिक कुक्कुभान् । मयूरान्कुक्कुटान् हंसान्सारसांचऋसाह्वयान् ॥" महाभारत, 13.54.10-11 The वेस्संतर जातक also clearly distinguished between कुक्कुट and कुनकुह (कुलकुम ) :- "चंकोरा कुक्कुटा नागा अञ्जमञ्जपकूजिनो"- Verse, 2098 "करविया च सग्गा च उहुंकारा च कुक्कुहा" - Verse, 2100 Thus कुक्कुभ in the following is the Coucal and not a cock:- “वीरुन्नीडकपोतकूजिमनुक्रन्दन्त्यधः कुक्कुभाः" मालतीमाधव, 9.7. The full verse describes a mid-day scene in the hot weather and the idea in the above line is that while the Doves are continuously cooing high up in their resting places the Coucals are 'hooping' lower down in the trees. The word कन्दन implics 'continuous calling and suits the Coucals better than the wild cocks that go to rest and sleep and ordinarily do not crow during the hot hours of the day. The onomatopoetic explanation of the name कुक्कुम given in अभिधानचिन्तामणि and the Marathi name for the Coucal, कुंभार कुकड़ी (from कुम्भकार कुक्कुट ) leave no doubt whatever about its identity, and the rendering of "Phasianus gallus" i.e. the wild cock, in M. Williams is incorrect. 4. Each of the two lines of the following verse from the कल्पद्रुकोश is descriptive of a single bird, the first deals with नीलच्छवि the Fairy Blue- Bird (Art. 18) and the second with the Coucal:- "नीलच्छवि: कृष्णगलः स ग्रामचटकाकृतिः । ककुभ: ककुभाकार स्थलजो रक्तपर्णकः ॥" Cuckoos Two other variants of the verse are as below:- "नीलच्छवि: कृष्णगल: स्याग्रामचटकाकृतिः । कुक्कुभ: कुक्कुभाराव: स्थलजो रक्तवत्मकः ॥” Quoted in the gloss on अष्टांगहृदय Paradkar's edition, N. S. 1939. "सितपुच्छो नीलगलः स्याद् ग्रामचटकाकृतिः । कुक्कुटः कुक्कुटारावः स्थलजो रक्तवर्णकः ॥" 139 Quoted by Tripurari on मालतीमाधव, 9.7, Niranaya Sagar edition, 1926, and M. R. Kale in his Notes on the same, Poona. A descriptive synonymy for the bird known as ककुभ occurs separately in the कल्पद्रुकोश "चित्रवर्णस्तु फकुभो". K. M. Vaidya in his अष्टांगहृदयकोश renders कुबकुम as a variety of Red Jungle Fowl; a large type of cock •per [चत्रदत्त or according to some ( इति केचित्) even the Turkey Cock (?). 5. With कुक्कुभ as a certainty for the Coucal and रक्तवत्मक for Pheasants having red orbital skin it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the correct original reading of the second half of the above verse was as under: 1 "कुलकुभः कुक्कुभारावः स्थलजो रक्तपर्णकः।" and the descriptive words ककुभ: ककुभाकार: belong to a different synonymy for the bird named ककुभ which besides being a heavy plump bird resembling in outline the gourd fitted to a guitar or वीणा as a sound box (ककुभो बीणाङ्गे। अधबिद्धालाबूमय भाण्डे–वाचस्पत्यम्; वीणा प्रसेवे-हेमचन्द्र कल्प) had also a variegated plumage (चित्रवर्णस्तु ककुभो ), and I have identified this truly ककुभाकार bird with the Himalayan Snow Cock ( Art 55). The epithets रक्तवर्णक तवरक are evidently wror readings inserted by ignorant scribes. The Coucal being a black bird with chestnut-red wings has a better claim to the attribute of रक्तपर्णक than to the others. Similarly the incorrect reading of कुक्कुटाराव: is due to the confusion between कुनकुम and कुक्कुट, The epithet स्थलज (land-born) really distinguishes it as स्थलकुक्कुभ from the Water Cock which is जलकुक्कुभ (Art. 58), the call of both being of a booming variety (कुक्कुभाराव). The red glow of sun has been compared with the chestnut-coloured wings of the coucal:- “कुम्भकार कुक्कुटपक्षविच्छाय मनाक्तमोनुविद्ध संध्यारागः ।” नलचम्पू, 5 after verse 76 The Hindi name for the Coucal is महोक which it is difficult to derive though it may be from मुहुः+क, मुहुर्मुहुः कायंते or मही with ओक्स्, or again from मधुक, a sweet-calling bird, with a secondary reference to मधुक, 'a bard' or मागघ who wakes up royalty with soft music in the morning. The Coucal too begins its hooping call at dawn; cf. the following :- "प्रबोध्यते मागधसूत पूर्गेनित्यंस्तुवद्भिः स्वयमद्रकल्पः ।” महाभारत, 3.236.10 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 6. Malkohas and Sirkeers frequent undergrowth and forest or scrub- jungle and are seldom seen in the open. Their food chiefly consists of insects, grasshoppers etc. and also berries for which they hunt in bushes and trees. They are great skulkers and prefer to seek safety by foot rather than by wing and are expert in threading their way through tangled scrub and dense. bushes. They are generally silent birds and their voice is a soft chuckle or a croak. Te mentions three names for birds of the Cuckoo family together... करात, कोकिल, and अत्यूह (Hawk Cuckoo ) in the प्रतुद class. कैरात means 'forester and a dwarf () and is a most appropriate name for Malkohas and Sirkeers. The Small Green-billed Malkoha of South India is in Telugu, so that the allied bird of the North, viz. the Large Green-billed Malkoha should be the of. The following description of the natural secretive instincts of fear and applicable to the birds in question:- is fully 140 "पर्यन्ताश्रयिभिनिजस्य सदृशं नाम्नः किरातैः कृतं कुब्जा नीचतयैव यान्ति शनकैरात्मेक्षणाशङ्किनः ।” रत्नावली, 2.3 fefe according to the lexicons means a Cuckoo or a Koel, and fefgud 'a Parrot as well as a Cuckoo'. Now the Sirkeer Cuckoos are known as जंगली तोता in Hindi and 'Adavi chilluka' in Telugu, both names meaning 'Jungle-Parrot' from their green upper parts and red curved bills. Again, the Large Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha goes by the name of if (Jungle Cuckoo) in Bengal. A comparison of these local names with fefgur (of the nature of a fad) in its two senses makes it abundantly clear that the name fefgua like of really belongs to these birds of the Cuckoo family and not to the Cuckoo proper or the Koel. It is also a synonym for the red-breasted Paroquest or शब्दार्थ चिन्तामणि. in 7. Finally, the term 'e', name of a particular bird in the Fifth Pillar (Delhi-Topra) Edict of Asoka would seem to be the same as ¹, and evidently refers to the Malkohas and Sirkeers. It is also highly pro- bable that the age, a forest bird of the Himalayas, named in areware , Verse 2099, is the Larger Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha or one of the two Sirkeer Cuckoos, the Punjab Sirkeer and the Bengal Sirkeer Cuckoo, the latter of which also occurs in Nepal and Bihar, or all three taken as a group of skulking birds. Etymologically the name should mean one who is anxious about his personal safety and therefore conceals himself -in short a skulker, from plus or fea; Cf. fe concealed in secret (RV.4.5.8). The Pali name would thus seem to correspond to आत्मेक्षणाशङ्किन: descriptive of the कुन्ज people in the quotation from रत्नावली given above. 1. कंरात गेलात गेलाट- cf. Marathi आमटा for Sk. आम्नात, and Prakrit केटा for क्रेता, किरात-किराड, डin Prakrit is often replaced with . 38 PAROQUETS OR PARROTS 1. The Parrots of North India have been divided into two genera, one of which is represented by five and the other by a single species. They are all of a predominantly green colour and differ little in their habits. Though normally arboreal they are attracted in large flocks to ripening crops like paddy and sorghum (juar) to the great despair of the cultivator and have been regarded with birds like the Buntings (ar) as one of the natural calamities (fa:) befalling a country. All the same, their brilliant. plumage, quaint habits, "sedate and knowing demeanour" and, above all, their teachability to talk and perform tricks have endeared them to the people and made them one of the most favourite cage-birds of India from very ancient times. 2. "The Parrots rank as among the most intelligent of birds. The mere talking to which they can be trained is nothing. The wisdom of the bird judged by this standard, is inferred from the degree of appositences with which it utters its phrases." (Harmsworth Popular Science, p. 2978). The European students of Indian bird-life do not, however, credit any of the Indian species with ability to talk beyond a few words; nevertheless, Sans- krit literature attributes considerable ability to them in this respect and whole verses have been placed in their and the Hill-Maina's mouths. A couple of such examples are reproduced below:- A Parrot to his beloved Maina:- "आलिङ्ग प्रतिवाचमुगिर सुधाकण्ठि! क्व भूयो वयः । कोपं मुश्च मयि प्रसीद सुभगे ! नैवं विधास्ये पुनः ||" भाव-शतक 54 The following half verse may well have been taught to a royal Parrot in the ordinary way though the next two lines (not reproduced here) give it a topical setting. On the defeat of his royal patron, the bird, released from his cage, is supposed to address a painting of his master in the royal Picture-gallery: "राजन् ! राजसुता न पाठयति मां देव्योऽपि तूष्णीं स्थिताः । कुब्जे ! भोजय मां कुमार सचिवैर्नाद्यापि कि भुज्यते ।।" काव्यप्रकाश 10.94 142 Birds in Sanskrit Literature If such examples had not been true a compliment like चाटु-गाया-समुच्चारण contained in the following beautiful passage would not have been paid to a pet bird. The poet describes goddess bird- as playing with her pet "सर्वविद्याविशेषात्मकं, चाटुगाथासमुच्चारणं, कण्ठमूलोल्लसद्वर्णराजित्रयं, कोमलण्यामलोदारपक्षद्वयं, तुण्डशोभातिदूरीभवत्किंशुकं, तं शुकं लालयन्ती परिक्रीडसे ।।” काव्यमाला 1 श्यामला दण्डक 5 nor would poet at have written : “शुकः श्लोकान् वक्तुं प्रभवति न काकः ववचिदपि” काव्यमाला, 14, दृष्टान्तकलिकाशतक पू० 86 "नित्याकर्णनया शुकेन च पदं साम्नामिदं गीयते " नागानन्द 1.10 Compare also: 3. शुकसारिकाप्रलापन was one of the arts practised in India by professional men like the trainers of Song-finches, Canaries, Thrushes, etc. in Europe today, and no one need be surprised at the performances of exceptionally talented Parrots and Mainas recorded in Indian literature,¹ barring, of course, poetic exaggeration in attributing to them human intel- ligence and capacity to make impromptu replies or even to carry on a con- versation. I have myself heard a Rose-ringed Paroquet repeat the follow- ing Hindi verse without a hitch though the articulation was certainly not equal to that of the Maina- चित्रकूट के घाट पै भइ संतन की भीर। तुलसीदास चन्दन घिसें तिलक देत रघुबीर ।। i.e., "In the midst of a gathering of saints at the waters near Chitrakoot Tulsidas prepared the sandal-paste and god Rainachandra applied it to his forehead." 4. Literary tradition has regarded a talking Parrot () as the mate of a talking Hill-Maina (fr), and it is on this supposition that वर्ष is a Parrot and बचा a Maina, and if he is मेघावी she is मेधाविनि which, by the way, is also the name of a most intelligent Maina in , 2.5.6. Even Keśava, the commentator of the free, would seem to have succumbed to this tradition, for he renders of AV. 1.22.4 as og and, following him, Sāyaṇācārya also has translated cit.) as ft and again as t or female Parrot in his notes on aferd-figar 3.7.6 although in his commentary on RV. 1.50.12 he correctly explains the term to mean a सारिका. (loc. 1. Parrots taught to repeat Lord Buddha's maxims have been शासन कुशल in हर्षचरित, 8. 2. M. Bloomfield's edition, 1890, p. 326. The insertion of masculine gender would seem to be clerical errors. described as START काष्ठमुसुक and the A Paroquets or Parrots and 5. Common names for all Parrots, except the Loriquet are , but there is reason to believe that the larger members of the group were designated as and the smaller varieties like the Blossom-headed and the Slaty-headed Paroquets, which have a much softer voice than the former, as कोर (कीति अव्यक्त शब्द ईरयति ). Names like चिरि, चिमि, and चिमिक for a Parrot are also indicative of softer notes and must belong to them. This distinction still obtains in their vernacular names, c.g., or at for the large and get for the small Parrots in Hindi, and or and in Marathi. The mention of both and in the following extracts from (i) the Skanda Purana, Vaiṣṇavakhanda and (ii) Padma-Purāṇa, Uttarakhanda are clearly based upon the above distinction and fully support it : ( i ) मयुर-कीर-गरुड-शुक-सारस-संकुलान् (ii) 143 Venkatācala Mahatmya 5.52 हंसः कीरेषु पाण्डित्यं कुर्वाणैः सङ्कले शुकै" Ch. 180.21 In literature and lexicons, however, the difference between and कोर has been entirely done away with Adnouns like त्रिकेतु, रक्त-or वक्रतुण्ड, f, etc., apply to all Parrots but the epithet e belongs to a pet bird as 'always holding on to his perch-rod', and also, humorously, to his leading 'an ascetic and celibate life by compulsion'; cf. at fa सीवत: said of one in सुभाषितरत्नभाण्डागार p. 228, verse 222. मन्जुपाठक is true of only such birds as are able to talk. With these preliminary remarks I proceed to a consideration of indivi- dual names for the six species of Parrot found in North India. 6. The Large Ir dian Paroquet (21") is marked on the wing with a large maroon-red patch. The bill is wholly red as compared with others whose lower mandible is differently coloured, and the legs and feet are of a dirty-flesh colour. Being the largest Parrot of India it is the शतपत्नशुरू of the lexicons— or "अन्यो महान् राजशुक: शतपत्रो निगद्यते" धन्वंतरि No Indian Parrot has red legs and the epithet for one may be rendered as red-marked' (पाद: चिह्नः अङ्क: वैजयन्ती and fवश्व) and in this sense it should belong to this bird after the conspicuous red wingpatches rather than the colour of the feet. The Blossom-headed Paroquet also has a small and inconspicuous red spot on the wing but is better named y after its deep purplish-red head. Other poetic names for this bird are प्राश, वाग्मिन्, नृपप्रिय, etc. 7. The Rose-ringed Paroquet (16") is the commonest and by far the most numerous of all and, as it moves in large flocks, it is the one that is responsible for a major part of the total damage caused to the crops by all the Parrots put together. It is the anger (ange fer, very prolific?) of the lexicons but its proper name is (wild or inferior) both Birds in Sanskrit Literature according to वसन्तराज, इंसादिप्रकरण 15, and केशव and सायणाचार्य as already pointed out in para 4 above. Its Hindi name, कठल सुआ is an exact rendering of काष्ठ शुक. 144 8. The Blossom-headed Paroquet (15) is कृष्णोत्तमाङ्ग or कृष्णांग शुक in कल्पद्रुकोश and Monicr Williams respectively, from the colour of the head in the male. It also shares the name of कीर with the next. 9. The Slaty-headed Paroquet (16) is the पतिचञ्चुशुक of कल्पनु after the colour of the bill. The upper mandible is orange-yellow and the lower yellowish. In the Blossom-headed variety the lower mandible black. 10. The Indian Red-breasted Paroquet (15") is पीतवर्णं शुक (Monier Williams) or पीतभद्र शुक (well-marked with yellow) referring to the yellow patches on its wings and also किङ्किरात शुक (किङ्किरं रक्तवर्णत्वं अतति शब्दकल्पद्रुम पीतभद्रः किङ्किरातशुके–– शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि ) from its red breast. A common synonymy obtains for bird and plant in this as in the case of भुङ्गराज the Large Racket-tailed Drongo (Art. 15 ) :- किङ्किरातो हेमगौरः पीतको पीतभद्रकः - भावप्रकाश, पुष्पवर्ग. The similarity of the Hindi मदन गौर for it with हेमगौर in the above equation is also worth noting. The श्येत शुक of the तति संहिता 5.5.12 सरस्वते शुकः श्येतः पुरुषवाक् is evidently this Parrot as the adjective श्येत signifies the reddish colour in the bird's plumage, and the name corresponds to fefgua. 11. Lastly, the Indian Loriquet ( 5.5."), which is no bigger than a Sparrow, is the पत्रशुक of वसन्तराज, हंसादिप्रकरण, 16, पर्णशुक of कल्पद्रु and भेदाशी of सुश्रुत, rendered as पुत्रशुक by डल्हणाचार्य. The first two names imply the colour assimilation of the bird with the green foliage of a tree; cf. पत्रगुप्त for the Chloropsis in Art. 5 B. Salim Ali makes the following observations about. these tiny birds: "On account of their small size and the wonderful oblite- rative effect of their colouration when clambering about among the foliage of tall trees, the birds are seldom seen except when flying accross from one tree to another. " The name पुत्रशुक, on the other hand, indicates its tiny size; cf. पुवक and पुत्रिका for very small birds in Art. 22 B, and their habit of breaking open the hardest of nuts is reflected in the name भेदाशी. It has a short tail and no collar, and is therefore not a त्रिकेतु 12. The flight of Parrots is very swift and a flock flying to or from rich crops in the open, or hurtling through the forest, swerving gracefully to avoid trees and branches, is always a fine sight. A selection of verses in appreciation of their beauty at close quarters and high up on the wing should prove interesting- "तुण्डेराताम्रकुटिलैः पक्षैर्हरितकोमलैः । विवर्णराजिभिः कण्ठैरेते मञ्जुगिरः शुका: " काव्यादर्श 2.9 Parrots Parrots descending upon a paddy-field- यत्र शालिवनोपान्ते खात्पतन्तीं शुकावलीम् । शालिगोप्योऽनुमन्यन्ते दधतीं तोरणश्रियम् ॥ And pretty peasant-girls, dressed in green, driving them away- शुकाञ्छुकच्छदच्छायै रुचिराङ्गी स्रनांशुकैः । छोकुवंती: कलक्वाणं सोऽपश्यच्छालिगोपिकाः ॥ Adi-Purāna of Gunabhadra, 4.61 Ibid. 35.36 A Yaksa describes to Arjuna a flight of Parrots, many carrying golden ears of paddy in their bills- मुखैरसौ विद्रुमभङ्गलोहितैः शिखाः पिशङ्गीः कलमस्य विभ्रती । शुकावलिव्यंक्तशिरीषकोमला धनुश्रियं गोवभिदोऽनुगच्छति ॥ • Poet माघ also presents a similar picture- हरितपत्नमयीव मरुद्गणैः सगवनद्धमनोरमपल्लवा मधुरिपोरभिताम्रमुखी मुदं 145 दिवि तता विततान शुकावलिः ॥ Kirātārjuniya, 4.36 Sisupāla-vadha, 6.53 39 ROLLERS The Rollers were formerly classed with the Jays by ornithologists who named them as Blue Jays; but they have now been separated and placed in a separate family of birds. In India also both Rollers and Jays appear to have been regarded as an allied group, going under the common name of . Sanskrit nomenclature for both has, therefore, been considered in Art 1-E. 40 THE BEE-EATERS (शाङ्क:) 1. The Bee-eaters with their bright green, blue, bronze, and chestnut plumage are among "the most resplendent birds of the world" and their place in the Fauna of British India (Birds) is between the Rollers (T:) and the Kingfishers (:). All of them have about the same habits. They feed on insects including bees and even wasps which they capture in the air and after each sally return to their perch, uttering pleasant whistling notes on the wing. A party of them hawking insects over water is a pretty sight indeed. They often live in colonies and excavate almost horizontal tunnels about two inches in diameter and several feet long in the banks of rivers, streams, bridle paths, etc. and even on level ground, and it is at the far end of such a hole that a rounded chamber is made for eggs and young. Sometimes they utilize deserted rat holes as well.¹ 2. They are represented by no fewer than seven species in different parts of India and four of them, which are the subject of this article, occur within the territories called ब्रह्मषिदेश and मध्यदेश as defined in Manu-smrti, 2.19 & 21, i.e. from East-Punjab to about Allahabad, includ- ing the outer Himalayan valleys to the north and the Vindhyas to the south. The best known of the series is the Common Indian Bee-eater (9" long) known as पतिया (from पविन् 'arrow') in Hindi and वेदराघू (the 'Vedic or holy parrot'-'parrot' after its predominantly green colour) in Marathi. It is a "most elegant little bird" and with its predominantly green, bronze or gold, and chestnut plumage, a long, slender slightly cur- ved and pointed bill and the habit of catching its insect food on the wing from a perch on a tree or low bush, and its sweet 'tit tit' or 'tiree tiree tiree' call uttered on the wing it is easily identified. 3. The Blue-tailed Bee-cater is 12" in length and has a fully 2" long poin- ted bill. Though, like the Common Bee-eater, it is a plains species, it is partial to the neighbourhood of rivers, jheels and tanks. Its voice is a mellow rolling whistle or a chirp like 'teerp' or 'te tew, te tew' (cf. fe below). The Bearded Bee-cater, a magnificent bird, full 14" long, with a rather 1. G.F.L. Marshall in 'Birds' Nesting in India'. 2. पलिगा should be a semi तद्भव term fully comparable with शार्ग mentioned later. Birds in Sanskrit Literature heavy bill of over 2", is the largest member of the family. It is entirely a forest bird, feeds little on the wing and lives mainly on insects and honey which it seeks among the leaves and flowers on tree-tops. It utters its harsh double notes first with the head held low and the long blue throat feathers. puffed out; with each succeeding note the head is gradually raised and the last of the series is sounded with the head pointing straight up, perhaps reminiscent of the head movements the 3! The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater (9.5") captures its food on the wing and its evolutions in the air are extremely beautiful accompanied by a most musical trill, uttered every few minutes. It nests in banks of rivers or, like the Common Bee-eater, in almost level sandy ground. These Chestnut-headed are amongst the ear- liest bird risers and their pleasant notes may be heard almost with the first glimmer of light in the morning, especially if their roosting place is one among the tall reeds of a river bank. The Common Bee-eaters on the other hand are late risers and stir out only when the sun is well up.² shoot. 4. The Common Indian, the European, and the Blue-tailed Bee-eaters have the two middle tail feathers longer than the others, with their terminal portions narrow and a little separated from each other. In their very grace- ful sailing flight the outline of these birds resembles or recalls to one's mind the shape of a drawn bow with an arrow mounted on it ready The long, thin and sharply pointed bill represents the pointed head of the arrow and the square part of the tail, showing equally on both sides of the central tail feathers, corresponds to the feathered part of the arrow, while the projecting central feathers separated towards the end resemble the split end of the shaft (0) which rests on the bow-string where the bow- man grips and pulls it hard towards himself before letting the arrow go for the target. A good look at a Bee-eater during its sailing flight would bear out the picture suggested above. The Chestnut-headed and the Blue- bearded varieties have even tails, i.e. they lack the projected central tail feathers. 148 5. A majority of these birds include in their dietary a large proportion of honey-bees and hence the common English name of Bee-eater for them all." The oldest and the most-picturesque Sanskrit name for them, based upon their shape in flight and upon their surety of aim in catching flying insects (like a good marksman hitting the target with his arrow) is ( arrow) or (Visnu's bow; श्रृङ्गस्य विकार: शाङ्ग तद्वत् रूपं आचरण वा अस्य ). The tree (Pongamia glabra) when in blossom, is visited by large numbers of bees and the latter in turn attract the Bee-eaters. The tree 1. Cf. उद्गातेव शकुने साम गायसि said of the कपिज्जल bird in RV 243.2 The Bee eaters have been described as wgrafe:, 'prayer-singers' in MBh.; see below. 2. F.B.I. (Birds), second edition and The Book of Indian Birds' by Salim Ali where three of them are illustrated in colour. 3. This allied form (10.5") is confined to the extreme North-West of India including Kashmir. 4. They are a regular pest at all apiaries. Bee-eaters is therefore also known as (beloved of the Bee-eater) just as the शिरीष (Acacia sirissa ) is शुकेष्ट and the निम्ब (Melia azadirachta), काकेष्ट. Palias a bird-name in Vessantar Jataka, verse 2100, is the same as wri. 6. According to the वैजयन्ती कोश the terms शाङ्ग, कीर्ता and पिप्पिका are synonymous, which however is open to doubt as we shall presently see. The name कीर्णा (v.1. कीर्पा ) is perhaps derived from root कृ to draw or bend a bow' and corresponds in meaning to ff or mf, the feminine of शा; cf. कृशानु, (कृष्-कृश्, कति धनुम्), the archer who guards the Soma in heaven or atmosphere according to the Rgveda. पिप्पिका (v.I. पिप्पीका, पिप्पका ), feminine of fपप्पिक (पिप्पीक or fपप्पक) is apparently an imitative name after the call note of a particular Bee-eater. 149 7. These beautiful birds have secured a place of honour with others at the Aśvamedha ritual: (1) शार्ग: सृजयः शयाण्डकस्ते मैत्रा- कृकलास: पिप्पका शकुनिस्ते शख्यायै (2) (3) ( 4 ) वाज.सं.. 24.33. मैत्रा. सं., 3.14.14. वाज. सं., 24.40. मैत्रा.सं., 3.14.21. तैत्ति. सं., 5.5.19. काठ. सं., 5.7.9. तैत्ति. सं., 5.5.19. काठ. सं. 5.7.9. ब्रह्मणे शार्ग: - इन्द्राप्पै कीर्शा (कीर्षा in काठ. सं.) - तैत्ति.सं., 5.5.20. काठ. सं., 5.7.10. It will be seen that for the female of the fs Bee-eater has been dedicated to wear, the female deity presiding over 'marksmanship' or the 'art of archery' in all the four Samhitãs; the male wri is assigned to , the 'lord of prayer' or prayer personified, in the TS and to fa, the sun in a friendly aspect, in the VS; and the female turf is named for goddess it in the TS and KS. The names art and auf derived from and respectively, have apparently a similar significance and the male and female birds with these names, being dedicated to male and female deities, it would appear that they belong to the male and female of the same species of Bee-eater. In short, both these names correspond to (and or f of the Mahabharata; see below). The TS and KS mention all the three names in connection with different deities. and it follows that f and a (including af as shown above) are two different species of Bee-eater and the synonymy in dat is not wholly correct. 1. This dedication to given above. supports the derivation of from M. Williams regards was a w.r. of -but both appear to be correct Sanskrit forms. Birds in Sanskrit Literature 8. The commonest of the 'bow and arrow' shaped Bee-eaters is the Common Indian Bec-cater found all over the country, and this should be thew and staf of the Samhitãs. In his commentary on the TS Sayanācārya renders पिप्पका and शागं simply as पक्षि विशेष and अरण्य चटक: respectively which does not help at all, but he gives greft ergfrer as a synonym for f, and if कुलाली can be explained as को भूम्यां सालयति पालयति शावकान् 'a bird that brings up its young on or under the ground," the name geret fat would be fully descriptive of the breeding habit of a Bec-cater particularly as the term fimplies a 'small bird' which the Common Bee-eater certainly is. 150 9. This Bee-eater also figures as a bird of augury in Varahamihira's Brhatsamhita under the names. of दिव्य or दिव्यक and धन्वन (दिव्यो धन्वन उक्त -Ch. 87.9: "the shining bird is the 'bow-bird"), and the render- ing of as a 'kind of animal' by M. Williams requires correction. The Pårásara Samhità quoted by Bhattotpala in his commentary on Brhatsamhita, Ch. 85.28, also mentions as the bird which breeds during the rainy season. The Common Bec-cater "generally prefers a lower perch than the larger species" and this habit of perching on low bushes has been particularly mentioned in the Brhatsamhità which says that the sight of one, on one's left, perched at a height of only one cubit is auspicious and fulfils one's desire: शस्तं वामे दर्शनं दिव्यकस्य सिद्धिर्ज्ञेया हस्तमात्रोच्छ्रितस्य । 87.18 10. The Mahabharata furnishes quite a few interesting facts about these birds, e.g., the standard or war-flag of the brave prince Abhimanyu was quite appropriately emblazoned with the figure of a 'Golden Bee- eater' (f-the golden "bow-bird') :- अभिमन्योः कुमारस्य शार्ङ्गपक्षी हिरण्मयः । रथे ध्वजवरो राजंस्तप्तचामीकरोज्ज्वलः ॥ - Mbh 7.23.89. 11. It is also interesting to note that, like some other birds, the Bee-eater too has contributed to the mythical code of punishments for certain offences laid down in the great Epic and the Puranas. A person, guilty of calumny is doomed to be reborn as a Bee-eater: 1. Cf. कुलाल 'a potter'-कुं भूमि मृत्तिकां वा लाडयति ? See Sabda-kalpadruma also. कुलाल - कुक्कुट is a Crow-Pheasant, कुंभार कुकड़ी in Marathi, which places its large nest very close to the ground in a large bush and brings up its young in that situation. Similarly the term कुलाल for an owl in अनेकार्यसंग्रह of हेमचन्द्र and the firearer (Benares editions) should refer to the Grass Owl of N. India which nests on the ground in high grass. 2. F.B.I. (Birds), 1st edition. 3. Oundh and Poona editions. Bee-eaters असूयको नरश्रापि मृतो जायति शाक:- MBh 13.111.68. Now a slanderer must have a foul tongue so that when eating bees and wasps in his next life he should be in constant danger of being stung by them on his tongue, a fitting retribution indeed! But perhaps it was not known that the Bee-eater catches a bee head-foremost, squeezes out and jerks off the sting before swallowing it, and yet how much indeed did the ancients not know about these and other birds? The later author of the Markandeya Purana¹ appears to have missed the significance of the above punishment and has changed the offence so punishable into one of stealing wearing apparel, probably of a green or golden colour (Ch.15, verse 28). The Garuda Purana¹, on the other hand, bearing in mind the following state- ment of complaining of desertion by her husband- इत्येवमुक्त्वा प्रययौ पिता वो निर्घृणः पुरा- MBh 1.232.10, condemns a deserter of his wife to be reborn as a शब्दवेधी-प्राणी i.e.a ( शब्दवेधी an arrow, प्राणी creature): धर्मपत्नीं त्यजन् शब्दवेधी प्राणी भवेत् क्षितौ ।- Garuda P. II.2.70. 151 12. Finally, we have the rather detailed and circumstantial story of the bachelor-sage Mandapāla who, to secure his proper place in heaven, had to assume the form of a male Bee-cater () and beget progeny by a female bird (). Later on when the young had been born he, privately prayed to god Agni for their safety, and, after telling his bird- wife what his sons would do when grown up, left her. The four bird-sons of his bore the names of जरितारि, सारिसूक्व स्तम्बमित्र and द्रोण:- जरितारी कुलं ह्येतञ्ज्येष्ठत्वेन प्रतिष्ठितम् । सारिसक्व: प्रजायेत पितॄणां कुलवर्धनः ॥ स्तम्बमित्रस्तपः कुर्याद् द्रोणो ब्रह्मविदां वरः । -MBh 1.232. 9, 10. Soon after however a forest fire breaks out nearby and the lives of the young unfledged birds are in danger and the mother advises them to get into a rat-hole. Ultimately the young birds pray to god Agni who spares them. The mention of the rat-hole clearly shows that the author of the story knew the breeding habits of the birds though he had to place the young out in the open to deck out the story with a pathetic conversation between them and the mother. Now the names of the four birds and the fact of a forest conflagration have certainly been taken from the hymn to the fire-god in 1. Venkateshwar Press edition. 2. A deliberately mystifying paraphrase of the nameBirds in Sanskrit Literature RV 10.142 as we shall presently see. For the present let us see if it is possible to distribute the four names among the four North-Indian species of Bee-caters, जरिवारि, the same as जरिता (जरिन्ट singer) of the Veda, is said to be eldest of the four and the physical basis for him should be the Blue-bearded species which is the largest of all. Next comes सुज to let go; v.1. सारिसूक्व (सारि arrow, with सूक् to be pointed, who should be the next larger, the Blue-tailed सुक्क and सूक्त) species. The name afa for the third w clearly implies a type that prefers a low bush for a perch, for means a bush or clump. It is said to be a phonetic variation of with probably a slight change in meaning. M. William gives also f as v.l. for f. The RV hymn is a late one and it is suggested that has the same meaning there as in expressions like, 'by clumps or tufts' and Faf, 'bushy' occurring in TB and MS respectively (see M.W.). We have already noted the Common Bee-eater's habit of perching low and it remains to add that such perches are mostly in the open and fully exposed to the sun. The statement, "स्तम्बमिनस्तपः कुर्यात्" in the verses quoted above from the MBh 1.232, therefore, clearly points to it as af. Lastly, the fourth, is said to be the best of 'praise-singers'-- fat and the basis for him can only be the Chestnut-headed species which roosts in flocks and begins its trilling chorus with the first glimmer of morning light. The only objection to this allocation of the names is that they are all said to be from a single nest but it will be readily seen that this is entirely due to the exigencies of the story as told in the MBh., for there is no such statement in the hymn or in the Anukramani and so far as the hymn goes Jaritä alone appears to speak for all. The Anukramani, however, attributes two verses each to the four joint bird-authors of the hymn. They thus sing there as adults and most probably represent the four different species of the bird known to the Vedic sage. 152 13. The story in Mahabharata mentioned above is nothing more than a Puranic elaboration of the situation envisaged and briefly described in RV X.142. The author of the hymn would seem to have loved the birds for their beauty, graceful flight, pleasant call notes and their winsome ways. What is more, he also knew their breeding habits and the occasional danger to their young from a forest fire, and having witnessed their apparently wonder- ful escape from a conflagration he, in a spirit of thankfulness, attributed their safety to the mercy of god Agni and celebrated the event in the form of a beautiful prayer hymn. This he placed in the mouths of the birds themselves, for according to the Anukramaņi each of the four birds contributed two verses to complete the hymn. afar, the eldest according to MBh, opens the prayer and is followed by the others. The general purport of the hymn is summarised below:- 1. Cf. the epithet argrafe: for all four in MBh 1.131.16. Bee-eaters 14. On behalf of all Bee-eaters and particularly the young in their under- ground nests Jarită says in the first verse that he has always been in a special relationship with god Agni and that he has no other kinship, i.e. he does not expect help from any other quarter. He then pays the compliment of heavenly birth to Agni and reminds him that he is a helping friend to all living creatures, and assures himself that his prayer, moving fast like fleet horses to the god, would of themselves protect him as does a herdsman his herd. (The comparison with a fleet horse is very apt as the bird sees the advancing fire and hence the need for quick action, and a cow-boy leading his little herd into a dense jungle is better than one who follows it.) 153 15. In the third verse, describing the awful results of a conflagration, Jarita humbly assures the god that he would never think of incurring his displeasure. The next two verses, the 4th & 5th, vividly describe the action and course of the forest fire, while verse 6 allows for a full play of the flames, both hig!. up and low down, and expresses a fervent hope that other gods in their benevolent mood (:) may be with god Agni at the moment so that their silent influence may persuade him to spare the little young in the nests. The 7th verse refers to the waters of a river and a large tank or jheel' in the neighbourhood of which the nests are located, and requests god Agni to stop there and choose a different course (as in the very nature of things he must), and, finally, in the last verse of the hymn, after the fire has destroyed the grass about the nests and the place has cooled off, Jacità looks around and, out of gratefulness to the god for having passed lightly over the nests and spared the young, prays for a fresh growth of green grass all about and continued existence of the waters and the lilies¹ as provid- ing safe homes for the progeny of the future. The phrase refers to possible future visits of the god and Jarita's faith in his kindness at all times. 17. The above rendering gives a perfectly natural setting to the entire hymn and when so read one cannot miss its great poetic beauty and artistic composition. Griffith is certainly not right when he says that stanzas 7 and 8 belong to some other hymn and have been simply transplanted there. Similarly the opinon of Bloomfield (S.B.E., XLII, p. 515) that these two verses are independent of the hymn and have been "repeated with variants" both here and in AV 6.106 is not correct. Both the verses, in fact, are not 1. The lilies typify all aquatic vegetation where insect-life of all sorts thrives and furni shes food to the Bee-eaters. 2. No blame whatever attaches to these and other scholars who have dealt with the hymn for the simple reason that they did not know what exactly was the Sariga bird. It has been identified for the first time by the writer of this article and it is only with the help of the life history of these birds and the MBh version that a proper understanding of the hymn has become possible. 154 Birds in Sanskrit Literature only an integral but a most essential part of the hymn. They complete and round off the prayer beautifully upon a very optimistic note indeed. The AV and other Samhitäs have utilized them, not at all improperly, for purposes of a charm against fire. 41 THE KINGFISHERS 1. Kingfishers are usually brilliantly coloured in blue, green, chestnut and white, and can be recognised at sight. They excavate tunnels in the bank of a river or stream from one to five feet deep and egg-chambers are hollowed out at the farther end. 2. The common names for a Kingfisher are मत्स्य or मीन रङ्क (greedy of fish), a (a diver) and (plunging for food) but these have been mixed up in the glossaries with specific names for particular birds. Thus for example (dancing for fish) and have been incorrectly. regarded as synonymous through the influence of Prakrit where is changed into ग (cf. जलरङ्क= कोरंक, कोरंग). The former is specific for the Pied Kingfisher (12") as the very name shows --fish, and dance (" रङ्गः" मेदिनी, cf. रङ्गणश्येन for the Kestrel and व्योमलासिका, sky-dancer for the Skylark). In all these names the hovering or playful flight of the birds is regarded as a kind of dancing movement. The Pied Kingfisher hovers over water at a height of ten to twenty feet and on sighting a fish dives straight for it. Its other names are काचाक्ष (brown-eyed; "कृष्णपीतस्तु काच:"- ) and f (Hindi far, spotted like a sea-shell), and its way of fishing is well described by the कल्पद्रु कोश :- "काचाक्षः कर्पादक: आकाशे सुचिरं भ्रान्त्वा जले पतति लोष्टवत्" No other Kingfisher dives fish in this style. It is also named a (suspended high up like a parasol) from its hovering habit. is also an epithet for a , i.e., Osprey or Fishing Eagles which are known as and , in Hindi (Arts. 50 & 52-C). All blue Kingfishers, some of which are considered in the following paragraphs are मत्स्यरंक. 3. The Common Indian Kingfisher (7"), "one of the loveliest bird- sights," and not much bigger than a sparrow, is a little beauty, a gem amongst Kingfishers, flashing like blue jewels across the gloomy water. It is described in the Natural History of the Birds of Great Britain and Ireland, Ornithology, Vol. X as follows: The Common Kingfisher "one of the most gaily tinted birds and when darting down some wooded 156 Birds in Sanskrit Literature stream, and shone upon at times by the sun-beams it may give some faint idea of the brilliant plumage that sports in the forests of the tropics and that flits from place to place like so many lights in their deeply shaded recesses." It may well be called a gem or multi-coloured flower as indeed it has been in Sanskrit, viz., , a Kingfisher (shining like a jewel or a flower- "मणीचक प्रसूनं" and "मणी पुष्पमौक्तिकयोरपि"- बंजयन्ती; cf सुवर्णपुष्प for the brilliantly coloured Sun-birds, Art. 30; go, the beautifully ocellated, black and scarlet Tragopans, Art. 55-B; and #f, the rainbow). in the sense of 'moon-stone,' which is entirely white, does not suit any King- fisher. gfs (beautifully painted), again, for a Kingfisher, should be another name for this bird corresponding to her fafar (the beautiful Kingfisher) for it in Hindi. 4. The White-breasted Kingfisher (11") is mainly a land bird and feeds largely on insects, lizards, frogs and such small fry, which it captures after the manner of a Roller, flying down to them on the ground from an eleva- ted perch. The flight is strong and direct, and on the wing a loud scream- ing cry is uttered which is one of the familiar sounds of India (Whistler). It is found both near and away from human habitations and is by no means i closely dependent on the presence of water for its sustenance. Its voice has been described by Salim Ali as a loud cackling call. This bird is eviden- tly the चन्द्रकान्त ( चन्द्रवत् कान्तं वपुरस्य, from its white breast ) cf its name in from Sanskrit , a half-moon or crescent. This may be the faff of the Rgveda-but see below. Marathi 5. The Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher (15") is a big bird as Kingfishers go, being a little smaller than a Pigeon, and can be readily. distinguished from all other brightly coloured birds the group not only from its size also from its enormous pointed, red bill. A bird of well- watered and well-wooded country, it is found all over the sub-continent except the dry regiors like the extreme North-West, Sind and Rajasthan. Its chief diet consists of fish, crabs, reptiles, etc., and its "hoarse explosive chattering call or 'laugh', ke-ke-ke-ke-ke-ke, repeated every little while, bears a general resemblance to the White-breasted Kingfisher's, but is louder. and more raucus" (Salim Ali). It is evidently the or (crab, crabby) of the lexicons wrongly identified with te in mariffar perhaps because it stands nearest to the latter in sound. On the other hand, the name would seem to be after the crab-eating habit of the bird. A crab, before it can be eaten or swallowed, must be battered on a stone or a tree-branch and this habit of the bird has given it the name of (the thrasher) also in Sanskrit. Palig for a bird (Sanskrit , a crab) in the following, rendered as (2) in the commentary, is clearly the same and strongly supports the above identification: "कुकुट्ठका कुलीरका कोट्ठ पोक्खरसातका" वेस्संतर जातक, Verse 2104. Kingfishers 157 e is Sanskrit for the Hoopoe (Art. 43), and since the first two and the last names are in the plural it would be incorrect to separate in the singular, and the proper way to treat the compound "कोट्ठपोखरसातका" is to analyse it as कोट्ठसातका and पोक्खरसातका. Both these, as names of Water-birds, would then be the Cotton Teal, which nests. in holes in trees in the neighbourhood of water, and the Whiskered Tern, which nests on a lotus-leaf, respectively (Arts. 84-C and 69). If on the other hand is to be taken by itself for a particular bird as in the Pali Dictionary (P.T.S.), it may be the same of the 4 for a hooting or Large Owl, probably the Brown Fish Owl which nests and also often spends the day in a tree-hole. 6. The Stork-billed bird appears to be the Vedic foffa:- "सार्क यक्ष्म प्रपत चाषेण किकिदीविना"- RV 10.97.13. Here the cough of a person suffering from asthma is asked to quit the patient and go away with or to the the Roller bird, and the किकिदीवि, the Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher, both of which have harsh croaking or screaming "ke-ke-ke-ke-" notes resembling a fit of coughing. The proximity of the two names in the verse has led almost all the lexicographers to treat them as synonymous, but i commenting on it has held them to be two different birds:- "चाषाख्येन पक्षिणा सह तथा किकिदीविना पक्षिणा च सह" At other places ((तेत्ति. संहिता, 5.6.22 and तैत्ति ब्राह्मण, 2.5.8), however, he has rendered fefefe as a fafer or Partridge which is clearly incorrect. The important point is that he did not regard the two names as synonymous despite the lexical equations before him. The charm against jaundice in RV 1.50.12 mentions three different birds which makes it more than probable that and fff in the above verse are two different birds. Griffith in his translation of the Rgveda has correctly rendered them as the Blue Jay and the Kingfisher. has 7. पेरुमूरि in his औणादिक पदार्णव mentions that some authorities have split up faff into two words, fefe and ef, the first of which means a kind of bird and the second an animal of prey (द्वीपिन् ?), and श्वेतवनवासिन् s accepted this and given किकि for a kind of bird. But "किकीति कुर्वन् दीव्यति किकिदीवि:" of उणादि भोजीयानि seems to be the only correct analysis of the name. Nevertheless fefe or fest seems to have been in common use as an abbreviation, for we find fet e or ft as a bird with a harsh and unpleasant voice in the सुजात जातक, and कल्पद्रुकोश has the equation “दीदिविस्तु किकीविक:” which agrees with fafefव (the कि कि call + वि -a bird) in the supplement of M. Williams. We thus have three more names for this noisy King-fisher दीदिवि (the shining one), किकि or किकिवि and किकीविक (one calling out ki-ki, ki-ki) and they correspond to Hindi frafeer (दलेलदरेर very noisy) for it. Birds in Sanskrit Literature 8. The beautiful blue feathers of the Peacock, the Roller and the Kind-fishers () were often used for ornamenting royal flagstaffs:- 158 "केकी चासो मत्स्यरङ्कः विविधानां महीभुजाम् ध्वजाप्रेषु विधेयानि पक्षाणि श्रियमिच्छताम्" युक्तिकल्पतरु, p. 70. 42 HORNBILLS 1. "The Horbills are a well marked family of birds. They are especially. remarkable for their nidification......A hole in a tree is selected, and then the female, usually with the aid of the male, encloses herself and shuts up the orifice with the exception of a narrow vertical slit, by means of earth mixed with the bird's own droppings. She is thus enclosed before she begins to lay, and apparently remains in the hole till the young, which are naked when they leave the egg, are fledged, being fed all the time by the male through the slit....which just allows room for the bird's bill to be pushed through", Four species of the Hornbill occur in the sub-Himalayan areas west of Assam including the Common Grey Hornbill which is found almost all over India. 2. Common names for all Hornbills are मातृनिन्दक (सुश्रुतसंहिता) from the more than maternal care taken by the male bird not only of the young but of the mother also; for the father puts the mother to shame, as it were, in the matter of parental care; प्रिपात्मज (चरक सं., v.I. प्रात्मक, per डल्तृणाचार्य in his gloss on सुश्रुव ); and वापिस (नासिका यस्य or बुद्धि गता नासाऽस्य ) from the casque upon the base of the bill regarded as an overgrowth of the nose. The Rufous-necked Horbill of Nepal has, however, no casque but the basal portion of the upper mandible is thickened, and from the similarity of habits with others of the group it has been included within the general name of art. In fact this bird and perhaps also the Great Horn- bill are a par excellence, and dear to God firm as his favourite food, and they are also offered to the manes of the ancestors. "कृष्णग्रीवो रक्तशिराः वतपक्षो विहङ्गमः सर्व वाणसः प्रोक्तः पितॄणां पुष्टिवर्धन:"* forer is also the rhinoceros. The corresponding name in Hindi is (fr) व्याधीनस as a bird in बेस्संतर जातक is corrupt Pali for it. 1. Blanford and Oates. 2. It is एकवरक in मानसोल्लास 2.276 from एकाङ्क्ष-head and वरक-covering, i.n. a bird having a sort of covering on the head. 3. Quoted by उज्ज्वलदत्त at 2. 27 of उणादिनुववृत्ति. Birds in Sanskrit Literature 3. The r in addition to explaining far as the nourisher and regaler of his mate ("वपुषो [स्त्र्यपुषो?] रञ्जकस्तु प्रियात्मज:"), has two verses for two different varieties of the bird:- 160 . "नीलग्रीवो रक्तशिराः शुक्लपक्षो वनेचरः । कुरुवाहूः कुरुकुरुः स च वार्धीणसोऽय च ॥ स स्यात्कृष्णोदरशिरा वर्णतः कृष्णकर्बरः । पन्थालकः पुंसि भवेत् स्त्रियां स्यादवगण्डिका"॥ The first corresponds to the following verse from the frer g quoted in the शब्दकल्पद्रुम I. 118.50. 2. 2.22.48. "नीलग्रीवो रक्तशीर्षः कृष्णपादः सितच्छदः । बाघ्रणसः स्यात्पक्षीशो मम विष्णोरतिप्रियः ॥" The verse below is also quoted by the same authority from some commen- tary on the मार्कण्डेय पुराण:--- "रक्तपादो रक्तशिराः रक्तचञ्चुविह्ङगमः । कृष्णवर्णेन च तथा पक्षी वाघ्रणसो मतः ॥” It will be seen that the colour-patterns of (i) the Great Hornbill which is principally a black and white bird with black head and neck and some yellow and orange on the bill and (ii) the Rufous-necked Hornbill with a rufous or Chestnut (red) head, neck and lower parts, yellow bill with chestnut grooves on it and naked skin, blue round the eyes and scarlet at the throat, have been mixed up in these verses but there is no doubt that they refer to these birds. The legs of no Hornbill are red. The quotations however make it sufficiently clear that the particular varieties of fre sacred to God fry are the Rufous-necked Hornbill, and the Great Hornbill. The name for the latter given by appears to be a wrong reading for some other word, probably are. f for the female is with reference to the casque on her head being regarded as a sort of tumour or growth. 4. u would seem to be specific for the Great Hornbill as the bird makes the nearest approach to the description of the mythological as a weapon of God Siva. It is described as a staff the upper part of which resembles the human skeleton... ..cross pieces in the upper half for ribs and a skull at the top. The bird in flight, over four feet long, with its long tail, black and white wings and the head-assembly including the casque and the large massive bill, offers quite a comparable picture to Siva's weapon. Vernacular names like कुडांग, कुड्रांग, and हिवांग (विवांग) common in Assam are probable corruptions of खट्वाङ्ग खट्वाङ्ग is one of the Himalayan birds listed in मत्स्य पुराण खट्वाङ्ग बन the name of a region in the Himalayas mentioned in the Puranas, e.g. gfn, is evidently named after the Great Hornbill which was apparently very common there. Hornbills The Common Grey Hornbill (24 inches) of the plains south of the Himalayas is a slim grey bird whose tail constitutes nearly half its total length. The small casque with a point in front has given it names like fret ('a tip cat' on the head) or ferfere (a nail on the head) in Hindi and पतियल धनेश (पत्र वास; cf. पत्रशुक for the smallest Paroquet, Loriquet) in Bengal. It must therefore have been afre in Sanskrit. 6. The flesh of the Great and Rufous-necked Hornbills is said to be very good eating ("far superior to any fowl or pheasant"-Hume), and hence their selection as offerings to God fire and manes of ancestors: "बाधणसस्य मांसेन तृप्तिदशवार्षिकी।" 161 मनु' The commentator has explained as a very old and weak goat also called "fafra" i.e. with such long ears that when the animal bends down to drink, his ears and muzzle touch the water at the same time. A farfa variety of goat may be called for but why should the flesh of a wretched old goat be held in such high esteem when on all accounts. it is very unpalatable and almost uneatable. It is therefore suggested that arefore in the above context is no other than the Hornbill. If its flesh is dear alike to God for and man, why not to the manes of the depar- ted as well? The farefa indeed contains a statement by the manes themselves as to what exactly they would like to have at a . and the menu includes the flesh of for rendered incorrectly as a Crane of that name in the S.B.E. Vol. 52. "कालशाकं महाशाकं मांस वाघ्रणसस्य च । विषाणवर्ज्या (श्र? ) खङ्गास्तांस्तु भक्यामहे सदा ॥ "" The idea in Manu (3.271) therefore is that once fed with such a delicacy as the flesh of a Hornbill, the manes not only feel happy but would also not like to spoil their taste for a long time to come with anything inferior. 7. Finally it may be noted that alleged bird-names like "go- कर्बुरवर्णं" and "कृष्णोवरशिरस्" given by M. Williams on the authority of Galanos' Dictionary are not substantive names at all but merely descrip- tive adjectives taken from the definition of we in the g or some other glossary. 1. 3.271. 2. "वृद्धानां दोषलं मांसम्"-भावप्रकाश. 3. 80.14 43 The Hoopoes are closely allied to the Hornbills both in structure and nesting habits. They feed on the ground which they probe with their long, pointed bills for insects, grubs, and caterpillars. They nest in holes and the female sits very closely and seems never to leave the hole until the young are well grown and the male feeds her during all this period. The voice of the male is a double or treble "hoop" or "pooh" after which the bird has been named in many languages, e.g. gage in Persian and Hindi. The Sanskrit names for this beautiful bird are derived from (i) its voice. and love of progeny-gafa ('pooh-pooh', ga! gar!; v.1. frager) and (ii) its habit of "quartering the ground methodically" and probing it for food-कठाकु ("कठाकु: खदशिल्पिनो:"—–वैजयन्ती). Alternative forms of this last name are कुठाकु (M. Williams ) and कठारु ( "दरिख: पक्षी च" - उणादिवृत्ति, II, श्वेतवनवासिन्), names which correspond to सुतार in Marathi and खुट बढ़ई (a carpenter 'pegging' the ground, from it a peg, for a lay-out, as it were; cf. , a mallet or hammer) in Hindi. These names are the same as farest, an artisan who, like the village carpenter, frequently combines the func- tions of a smith and a house-builder. The bird's habit of regularly quar- tering the ground and stopping every now and then to probe it for food very naturally invited the comparison with a village carpenter. Yet another name for it in Hindi ise or stone-breaker, an adaptation from ge for a hammer related to art, an axe. It is known as get in Sind which is the same as कठाकु. The Pali form of कुठाकु or कठाकु (कुष्यते छियते भूमि ? ) is कुकुट्ठक or year in and the first of these, e points to the correct Sanskrit spelling of कु-कुट्टक (कुं भूमि कुट्टति छेदयति) 'one who pierces or breaks the ground with his bill' which agrees with the habit of the Hoopoe who pokes his bill deep into the ground for worms and insects. Moreover, with the folded crest and the long bill, the bird's head looks also like a toy pick-axe (E. H. Aitken). 1. HOOPOES for the gafar again, is another happy name for the bird (cf. f Hornbill). Fletcher and Inglis testify to the extraordinary love of the female for her eggs: "On one occasion, to inspect the nest, the hen 547 Verses 2097 and 2104. Hoopoes bird had to be pulled out of the hole and in doing so some of her tail feathers came out, but even this rather severe handling did not make her quit the place". The male feeds the female during incubation to ensure proper hatching out of the young. No wonder the ancients loved and remembered these devoted birds in their epics: "पुवप्रियोऽसौ शकुनिः पुत्र पुत्रेति भाषते । मधुरां करुणां वाचं पुरेव जननी मम।।" रामायण, 2 "पुत्र पुवेति वाशन्ते यत्र पुत्रप्रिया खगाः । यथा शिवप्रियाः शैवाः नित्यं शिव शिवेति च ।" “चकोरैरसितापाङगैस्तथा पुत्त्रप्रियैरपि ।” 1. Birds of an Indian Garden. 2. (Interpolated Canto) 2.96.12. 3. कौमारिका खण्ड 3.62. 4. 3.108,8. Also ब्रह्मपुराम 41.46. मार्क० पुराण 6.19. मत्स्यपुराण 118.52. स्कन्दपुराण 163 महाभारत' 44 THE TROGONS These beautiful birds inhabit forests and from their perch on a tree they fly out from time to time in pursuit of insects, chiefly beetles, moths and cicadas. They are generally silent birds but have a low 'mew' or a soft 'too-too-too' call. As a North-Indian bird we are concerned with only one species, the Red-headed Trogon which occurs in the Himalayas upto about 5000 ft. elevation from Nepal to Assam and eastwards. "It is exclu- sively a forest bird and prefers the interior of the damp, dark, evergreen cover, where it sits very silent and quiet throughout the heat of the day," and is most common in the lower hills between 1,500 and 2,500 feet. It is deep crimson on the head, neck, and upper breast with the remaining lower parts bright crimson. Its back, scapulars and wing-coverts are ferruginous- brown, brighter and more rufous on the rump and upper tail-coverts; wings are black. ays is the name of a xg bird in (also a descriptive term for the Brahminy Kite, Art. 52-D) and is a bird of some peculiar habits recom- mended as an object-lesson to a prince in the मार्क० पुराण "हंसकुक्कुटलोहानां शिक्षेत चरितं नृपः।" A king is advised acquire the power of dist hing good from evil from the ; qualities of valour, early-rising etc. from the ge; and other qualities from the bird. Now if the Red-headed Trogon (te means 'red' and as means "red or reddish-backed" bird) is the bird meant here, as I believe it is, it certainly possesses qualities which an enterprising prince should do well to cultivate. Out on an expedition, he must keep to cover in a forest, practise secrecy, talk only in whispers, and know how and when to sally forth suddenly against an unsuspecting enemy and return to cover again with the booty. The Trogon has all these and should be the लोहपक्षी of the Purāna and लोहपृष्ठ of चरक. लोह is also mentioned as one of the Himalayan birds in मत्स्य पुराण 1. 25.18 (cf. verse 997, "सामान्य नीति" सुभाषित.) 2. 118.52. 45 SWIFTS 1. We have seen in Art. 25 that the common name e applies to both Swallows and Swifts, and while is a general name for the former, the latter are generally known as दुर्बल, दुर्बलिक and चिरिल्ली or चीरल्लि. In this article an attempt is made to explain the latter terms along with other names for the Swift. 2. The Swifts, though similar in appearance and outline to the Swallows, are very different in structure and belong to a different order of birds. "They are the most aerial of all birds, spending the whole of their waking existence on the wing. The flight is very rapid and highly charac- teristic,......a Swift wheels and dashes through the air with frequent changes of direction, tilting now to one side, now to the other, with a succes- sion of rapid wing-beats alternating with long glides on extended wings.. It does not voluntarily settle on the ground., the short legs with all the toes directed forwards being only adapted to clinging to rocks, masonry, etc." (Smythies). Should it be grounded, due to some accident, "it rises with great difficulty, the bird raising itself by repeated attempts and strokes upon the ground by the shoulders." The Common House Swift is "highly gregarious, being usually found in flocks of fifty or more, which breed together in colonies, ..The nest colonies are found about buildings, whether these be the ordinary dwelling houses of an Indian village or town or ruined temples, shrines and forts. The birds occupy these nest colonies continuously, breed- ing rather irregularly, so that eggs or young may be found in some of the nests at any time, and at all times using the nests to rest or sleep in.... (Their voice is a) curious squealing call which so aptly seems to express the fierce joy of an aerial creature in its element. The flocks usually feed in loose open order, but at times, specially in the evenings, they collect together into a "ball", mounting high into the air as a squealing, careering mass" (Whistler). 3. Names like दुर्बल, दुर्बलिक, and कृश (दुर्बल) are clearly in reference to the Swift's inability to rise from the ground; cf. the phrase "g fe gen" for a cow that has got stuck up in deep mire and is too weak to extricate herself. 1. Birds of Great Britain and Ireland. Birds in Sanskrit Literature अश्वघोष refers to दुर्बल as a bird that loves to be constantly on the wing and makes use of its nest merely as a resting place:: “धारणार्थं शरीरस्य भोजनं हि विधीयते । उपस्तम्भः पिपतिषो दुर्बलस्येव वेश्मनः ।" सौन्दरनन्द 166 The mentions the Swift, gif, as a bird of augury. The Hindi names and art for the House Swift are from Sanskrit f(having a defective body) and refira (living on the air, as the birds seem to eat nothing). The first corresponds to gier and the second to a certain type of ascetic. 4. The शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि defines बलिल as a kind of bird that is constantly flying in the sky ( सतसं गगनचारिणि शास्त्रप्रसिद्धे पक्षिविशेष) and cites the following verse from some Vårtika on a treatise on Vedanta: "अलिलः पक्षिणः पुत्रो गगनाद् याति भूतलम् । स्वबोधाभावतः स्वस्य बोधे यात्यम्बरं पुनः ॥” The habit of the bird afere is used here to illustrate the nature of the 'atman' who can enjoy a state of ecstatic happiness only in a high spiritual plane. Now the only bird whose habits fulfil the above description is the Common House Swift which not only takes its food, drink and nesting materials on the wing but even mates and feeds its grown-up young in the air. It resorts to its nest either for a momentary rest during the day or to sleep in at night. It does not voluntarily descend to the ground and if by accident this does happen, it manages to fly back into the air. The name पलिल like चरिल्ली is most probably after the bird's call and Prak अडिल्ल is merely a variant according to the rule डलयोरैक्यम्. Prakrit अडिल्ल said to be derived from बटिल (अटल not moving ? ) is defined in afas fer" i.e. a kind of bat, probably the small house-bat, which also finds it rather difficult to take to the air once it has landed itself on the ground; Cf. (not coming to the ground) for the larger fruit-bats. Little bats, however, do not fly even half as high as Swifts and can certainly not be described as गगन-or अम्बर-चारी. Moreover, it is highly improbable that such an unclean looking thing as a bat, occupying stinking nest-holes and blind by day, should be chosen by the Vedāntic philosopher to illustrate one of their principal doctrines. Sansk. sfe may therefore, stand apart 1. 14.15. 2. 87.7 & 28. 3. प्राणक जातक and प्राणिभूत are obscure bird-names in महाव्युत्पत्ति, Section 213. If means 'wind or air' the first may mean 'a bird that is begotten in the air', and forge may be an allied form 'begotten in the ordinary way'. This is, of course, pure guess-work. 4. गौतम स्मृति Ch. 17; आश्रम पन्थावलि No. 61, Poona. Swifts 167 from Prak. af in spite of their close affinity. Nevertheless, it is possi- ble to reconcile and connect the two through two different meanings of the Marathi term as given in the gr, viz., (i) a small bat and (ii) a kind of small bird, evidently the Swallow or Swift both of which are popularly known in Marathi by that name and are not distin- guished one from the other. The Chief reason why the bat and the Swift share a common name seems to be the fact that in their daily routine of life they are complimentary, as it were, to each other. If the Swift is on the wing all day and returns to the nest for the night, the bat keeps flying all night. and spends the day in its nest-hole. Both are however, seen flying at dusk and often returning to their nests to feed the young. This makes it easy to reconcile old survivals like चामचिकि ( ( चमंचटी ? ) in Bengal for the Palm Swift and TH (bird with wings of skin, cf. Hindi a bird) in Sind for the Pale Brown Swift as alternative names for them. It follows, therefore, that afere and afere are merely different forms of the same word, but while the former means the House Swift in Sanskrit the latter has been confined to the small bat in Prakrit. 6. The name चटक in the प्रवुद list of चरकसंहिता stands probably for both Swallows and Swifts for चक्रपाणिदत renders it as देवकुलचटक: F: i.e., little birds living in temples, and we know that both these build their nests. there. Te is also a common name for Sparrow- like birds but has mentioned separately the House and other Sparrows as far and song-Sparrows as fg. The interpretation of the commentator must, therefore, be accepted as correct. 3 चटक, देवकुल चटक, and fufeet or feet thus seem to be general names for both Common House Swallows and Swifts, but it must be remembered that strictly speaking and are the Swallows and want the Swifts according to धन्वन्तरि निषण्टु (Art. 25). 7. The औणादिक पदाणंव of पेसूरि 4.163 gives the equation "जीवि: " and the name off (fre speedy or quick, and fa a bird) is an exact equivalent of "Swift" as a specific bird-name, and the aptness. of the name for the Swift would be appreciated when it is recalled that the normal speed of a Swift on the wing is 75 miles as against 35 miles per hour of the Swallow. These speeds are very much higher when the birds are pressed by danger, and though hundred miles per hour for a Swift is definite, that accurate observer of bird-life, E.C. Stuart Baker, has actually timed a Swift with a stop-watch flying at the tremendous speed 1. Ed. by Y. R. Date (1933). 2. सुश्रुत has distinguished them as कुलिङ्ग and वेश्म-कुलिङ्ग. 3. Just as the common terms शकुन, शकुन्त, and पत्नी mean both 's bird in general and particular birds of prey, the word also means 'a sparrow' and 'a swallow or swift' according to the rule सामान्योऽपि विशेषे वर्तते--अभिधानचिन्तामणि. 168 Birds in Sanskrit Literature of two hundred miles per hour.1 ff, therefore, is a most expressive and accurate name for it as the fastest little bird known, fars of the list. from a quoted by weet under 85.38 of the gefgar is again the Swift which collects into a "ball" (f) and mounts "high into the air as a squealing careering mass" at evening. 8. चरिल्ल in अर्धमागधी means a kind of bird and is the same as चिरिल्ली or feet, and the expression after he means a person who gives protection to Swifts nesting in his house. It is an old belief commonly held both in India and China that the continuous nesting of these birds in a residential house is very auspicious, for it augurs well for prosperity and continuity of the family occupying it. If the nests are inconveniently situated, e.g., over a passage or stair-way, planks are fitted under them to catch the droppings. A similar belief obtains in England too. 9. The Western Palm Swift of North India is known as are in Hindi corresponding to Sanskrit ars, and when it is remembered that implies also a swift, it is but natural to call a Palm Swift a arr. This name does not occur in any currect lexicon but one can hardly doubt. that the bird had it in Sanskrit as well. 10. The efgar mentions gyurs (having one egg or young) as a bird of augury and attributes to it the habit of swooping down on the surface of a stream or tank ("aternife geges:"). These charac- teristics agree very well with the habits and ways of the Crested Swift, an ashy grey bird with a deeply forked tail and resembling a Swallow in flight. It is a forest bird, freely perching on the top-most bran- ches which are leafless or dead. The call is a loud and Parrot-like 'kia, kia, kia' (which may also be rendered as 'chia, chia, chia') frequently uttered either from a perch or on the wing. The bird is particularly noisy in the evening when preparing to roost. "Should there be a tank or pool of water or river near its haunts this Swift is fond of descending rapidly from the air to the surface of the water, touching it and mounting again in one graceful curve" (Whistler). It makes a tiny nest on the side of a horizontal branch, barely half an inch deep and so small as to be covered completely by two anna-pieces placed side by side. The single egg it lays completely fills the nest. It is clearly the gas of the Samhită. 11. One of the most poctic hymns of the Rgveda is the art, and its second verse mentions two birds, qur and fafere as playing music to the goddess of the forest:- "वृषारवाय बदते यदुपावति चिच्चिकः । आघाटिरिव धावयन्नरण्यानिर्महीयते ।।" Rgveda, 10.146.2 1. "Birds, Trees and Flowers", pp. 15 & 129. 2. "Adventures in Woodcraft", 52. See Art. 25 for a similar idea about the qurft or Swallow. 3. 87.6. Swifts 169 M. Williams explains que as a kind of animal and fefe as a kind of bird. in his gloss on this Vedic verse takes the first for feet or the Cicada Fly and the second for another insect with a 'chi, chi' call, probably a cricket or green grasshopper which has such a call. Comment- ing on affer. wg II.5.5.6 where this verse occurs, he however renders both as birds: "वृष्टिकाले रवः शब्दविशेषो पक्षिविशेषस्य सोऽयं वृषारवः ..वृषारवाय पक्षिणे प्रत्युत्तरवादी चिच्चिकाख्योऽन्यः पक्षी.....उक्तिप्रत्युक्तिरूपचिच्चिशब्दसहस्राणि- कुर्वद्भिः सूक्ष्मैः पक्षिविशेष: युक्ता इयमरण्यानिः शोभते ।” Apparently the commentator had good reason to revise his opinion by the time he came to annotate the Brâhmaṇa, and for one thing, he must have come to know that the descriptive title of w(Bird-hymn) had been applied long long ago to either the "af" verse of RV 1.164.20 or in the alternative to the verse quoted above. It is therefore submitted that the later interpretation of and fefe as particular birds by सायण is correct. Further we have चिच्चिका in Prakrit and सवा and लट्वा in Sanskrit as names for musical instruments, probably 'whistles', each named after the bird whose call it imitated. 12. The name ( to rain, and are to call, i.e. some sort of a rain-bird) is probably the same as घनारव of the कल्पकोश- "धनारवश्व rig", the Hawk-Cuckoo which is very vocal at the beginning of and during the rains. ff is obviously an onomatopoetic name for a small bird (geeft) comparable with for the House-Swift and Swallow. The Crested Swift, as we have seen, is a forest bird and has a loud 'chia, chia, chia' call. It hawks for insects in parties in a wheeling, graceful flight and is particularly noisy in the evening (Whistler). This, I su is probably ff of the hymn which has been happily conceived to answer back, as it were, to the loud and persistent call notes of the Hawk-Cuckoo.¹ The Hymn is apparently addressed to the goddess of the forest in the evening by a person who is late in coming home or has lost his way through the forest. The fifth verse is perhaps a pointer in this direction. 1. Z. A. Ragozin renders and fefe as Owl and Parrot respectively in Vedic India, p. 279. 46 NIGHTJARS 1. The various species of Nightjar resemble each other very closely and are difficult to identify in the field except by their distinctive calls in the breeding season. The plumage is a mixture of mottled grey and brown with white, resulting in a remarkable protective colouration. "The bird seems to be conscious of the fact, only springing into life when the intru- der comes within a yard or two." It spends the day resting quietly, flat on the ground, but as the evening approaches and dusk turns into darkness it becomes active hawking insects on the wing in open spaces near trees. While on the ground, it is incapable of any progression because of its long central toe. This toe has a pectinated nail (serrated like a comb) with which it probably removes insect-wings etc. sticking to the long bristles surrounding the extraordinarily wide gape. This wide mouth gave rise. to a false belief in the western countries that the bird was capable of and actually given to sucking the milk of goats, and hence the name 'Goat- sucker' for it. It has a habit of sitting in the middle of the road at night and travellers by motor car often see it so doing. 2. It is known in Hindi as for and it fefe, the names being in reference to the obliterative colouration of the bird on the ground. It is नप्तूका, a विष्किर bird in सुश्रुत and a night bird with a keen sight in कौटिल्य, the corresponding Hindi names being नपता and नपरका. The Nightjar does not usually fly for many minutes together and between each circuit it rests on the ground (Dewar). It is incapable of walking or hopping and must therefore drop down to its resting place on the ground, to rise again after a minute or two. This trait of the bird would seem to justify the apt name of a for it-+ one that falls but not permanently like a stone पतति न पतति च पुनरुत्पतनाय पतति (?). The बृहत्संहिता and mention the bird under the ga name of fefore from . fafor 'fallen down' and Sansk. fer to throw. The name thus corresponds to Sansk, नप्तुका 1. II.14.2. 2. 88.2. and 35. 3. 4.62; 8.32. Nightjars 3. It is also the bird selected as an offering to the deity of the Night at the अश्वमेघ under the name सोचापू :- "राज्य सीचापूः"-याज० संहिता, 24.25. The name सोचापू is most probably from शी-सी, शयने and चप् सान्त्वने शयानं चपति, one that rests in a lying down posture. Hindi and Marwari for a Nightjar, also Sansk. forfer seem to be from the root 4. M. Williams gives as a kind of bird in , 1.27 but I have not been able to trace it in my copy. The name, however, seems to have some connection with a frog. The Nightjar is known as 'the frog-bird' both in Telugu and Tamil, apparently because when perching low on the ground, as is its habit, it looks like a frog. Its extraordinarily wide gape, when the bill is open, also has a striking resemblance to the wide mouth of a frog. as a bird, therefore appears to be a Nightjar. Indian linen of old must have been of a coarse texture and of a rather grey- brown colour which explains the punishment proposed in the fagfer 44.27 for a thief of clothes made from it.-" " etc. and here 171 is more probably a Nightjar than a frog as the name occurs as one of a series of bird-names for the next birth of different types of thieves. Again in the following may well be a homonym signifying both frogs and these birds:- "स्तोककाः शिखिन व पुंस्कोकिलगणैः सह । मत्ताः परिपतन्ति स्म दर्दुराव दर्पिताः ॥" महाभारत, 3.183.8. In England also a Nightjar is popularly known as the Flying-toad. fg as a bird in the bird-list quoted from पाराशर by भट्टोत्पल under 85.28 of बृहत्संहिता would seem to be this bird. 1. "This bird is most punctual in beginning its song exactly at the close of day"- Gilbert White, Letter XXII to T. Pennant. Compare also the English name "Twilight Nightjar' in Cassells' Book of Bird. 47 FROGMOUTHS These birds resemble small Nightjars and occur only near Sikkim and east of it and in the extreme south of India-Wynad and Travancore. The name a probably from a frog, for a bird, has already been noticed in the preceding article. 48 THE BARN OWL 1. The Barn Owl is pale grey-brown and rufous ochre above, has a white face and, white under-parts, spotted with brown. It is also known in English as the White or Screech Owl, looking "strangely white among the black trees". It is found all over India but not in forests. It haunts roofs of buildings, outhouses, wells and ruins. Its cry sa peculiar weird. shriek or screech, and when perched during the day it makes a snoring sound (T. Regan), and at night as well. Sansk. (one who makes a guttural or snoring sound) for an owl clearly refers to it and the name perhaps corresponds to in Hindi. Its other names in Hindi, Telugu and Tamil mean 'bad bird' corresponding to Sans. gfa, y or af in वाज ० संहिता (24.39) where it is placed with two other noisy birds, कुटरु and ateite. The Larger Owls have been looked upon all over the world as birds of bad omen and the Barn Owl is no exception. The age of भविष्यपुराण (मध्यमपवं 20.17) is clearly this Owl which is considered there to be an evil bird. The (white like the moon) Owl in the story of a Rat, Cat and Mangoose would also seem to be the Barn Owl as he is des- cribed there as the enemy of rats : "उलूकं चन्द्रकं नाम तीक्ष्णतुण्डं क्षपाचरम् ।” noisy. कुवि. महाभारत, XII 138.33. चन्द्रकोलूक would be yet another name synonymous with श्वेतोलूक. This Owl has a fleshy-white or fleshy-horny bill and the adnoun fers may belong to it if not to the Himalayan Wood-Owl with a fleshy-yellow bill. 2. The Grass Owl (14") also belongs to the present family and resem- bles the Barn Owl in the colour pattern of the body plumage, and if seen perched upon a tree it would pass for one. But its ways are very different and unlike the Barn Owl, which breeds in holes in buildings, wells, or trees, it always lays its eggs on the ground in fairly long grass and inhabits the long grassy areas of the Himalayan Terais, the adjoining plains, and in similar 1. Sometimes it is pure white below. 2. Ifafa is not the Barn-Owl it would be the common Owlet which too is very The name कुवि occurs in राजनिघण्टु and कुधि in कल्पद्रुकोश is a wrong reading of Birds in Sanskrit Literature situations in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and further south. Even where these. Owls are common they are but seldom seen unless put up by beating through the grass. They come out in the evening when they often perch on trees. The following synonymy probably furnishes us with a name or epithet this bird: 174 "कटप्रूः कीटके धूके' कामरूपिण्यपि स्मृतः" पेरुसूरिऽप्रोणादिक पदार्णव 2.211. is clearly a homonymous adnoun or epithet designating several objects, and as an epithet for an Owl it may be analysed as below:- कटं तुणम् (श० कल्प ० ) ; प्रु गमने; कटे तृणे प्रवते कटप्रू, hence कटप्रू उलूक is an Owl that moves or lives in grass; cf. कट तीरं प्रवते इति कटप्रू नदीतरंग: in दशमायुणादिवृत्ति 10.2. कटप्रू also means a demon or (M.W.) and should, in this sense, refer to one that hides and moves in tall grass or in the deeply dented banks of rivers. It is thus just possible that the name 3 belongs to the Grass Owl. 1. धूक here simply means an owl that is not a क्षुद्रोलूक 49 OTHER OWLS 1. This family constitutes a well defined group of predacious birds easy of recognition. Most of them hunt for prey during the dark hours of the night but a few have diurnal or semi-diurnal habits. One particular species eats carrion in addition to the common fare of all Owls consisting of insects, small or large mammals and birds according to the size and strength of the different species (of Owl). The Fish Owls subsist mainly on fish though they kill other prey a well. All have broad rounded heads, flattened faces, and large eyes directed forwards which give the bird a fearful expression and a fixed gaze as it were (cf. farger below). The are powerful and furnished with sharp, curved and cutting claws of great grasping power and it is with these that Owl secures its food (raft). The plumage is soft and downy enabling the bird to fly almost noiselessly. 2. The Indo-Aryans regarded the hooting Owls as birds of ill omen but this apparently did not prevent them from observing the birds and their ways. Early Buddhist monks who travelled widely to propagate the Gospel of Lord Buddha in countries like Kashmir, Tibet and further north used articles of dress like gloves, and perhaps also leggings and shoes, lined with or made from soft feathered-skins of Owls for protection against the bitter cold (see Art. 54). This involved the killing of a large variety of Owls and the people naturally came to know something about them and that perhaps accounts for the naming of individual species Igroups of allied forms of a bird that is rarely seen during the day and has never been kept as a pet. That the ancients made a close enough observational study of these birds may be gathered not only from the works on augury now extant and these difinitely mention earlier authorities-but also from a know- ledge of the reactions of a bird when intruded upon or annoyed at the nest. All Owls hiss and snap their bills fiercely at an intruder and the larger ones quite loudly:- उलूकाकारतां धृत्वा फुत्कारैरतिदारुणैः स्कन्दपुराण, काशीखंड, I.20.48. Some of the larger Owls like the Tawny Fish-Owl occupy the deserted nest of an Eagle for Laying their eggs and bringing up the young. This fact was known to the ancients, to wit, the story of a dispute between a 176 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and for the possession of a nest related in the third canto interpolated between cantos 59 and 60 of area of the Rāmāyaṇa. qu has been used here in the general sense of a bird of prey including the Eagle. It a poor story, badly told and the final judgment of Râma is also incorrect, but that is immaterial for our present purpose. 3. The common names for an Owl are , f and . The first name probably refers to their noisy character (cf. उलि उलूलि outcry), the second to their living and breeding in holes (), and the third to the dark brown plumage of some of them. The smallest Owls, viz. the Owlets, being known as क्षुद्रोलूक, उलूकचेटी, पिङ्गला or डुण्डुल the term उलूक has as a rule been confined to the larger hooting Owls both in the Rgveda and later literature while the names महाकौशिक and महापक्षी belong to the boldest and most powerful of them all, the Forest Eagle Owl (see below). On the other hand the so called common names like नक्तंचर, तामस क्रूरराविन्, दिवाभीत, दिवान्ध, नखानी, हरिलोचन, धूक, घोरदर्शन etc. are merely in the nature of descriptive adnouns stressing a particular habit or character of an Owl. Complementary names like fe and fefe mean an Owl and a Crow respectively as mutual enemies, a particular large Owl over- powering and killing a Crow at night and the latter having the better of the former during the day. 4. Apart from the general classification based on the size of the birds there is another which subdivides the family according to (1) the colour of the plumage, e.g. am for the Bay Owl, as for the White or Barn Owl (Art. 48) and fr for the Owlets; (2) the shape of the head, e.g. for the larger hooting Owls with a large round head and a marked depression on the forehead which divides the head into two globes, as it were, resembling the prominences on the forehead of an elephant (); and (3) the way ear-tufts are carried, e.g. at for one that has long aigrettes or car-tufts resembling the long cars of a hare; for one that wears its ear-tufts always erect; and finally, ar or STT for those that have their tufts spread out sideways. Besides we have the name are for a particular species that kills and cats mainly Crows and far one having the ways of an eagle. ind is an interesting 5. The following verse from the commentary on the epithet पोरदर्शन:- 1. धन्वन्तरि राजनिघण्टु and कल्पदुकोश have listed the names of the larger Owls and the Owlets separately. raft also has estat for the dark coloured Bulbul (Art. 6) so that it is possible that and are allied forms meaning 'black or dark colour'. अभिधानप्पदीपिका, 1023 actually gives मेचक in the sense of Sansk. पेचक for हस्तिपुच्छमूलोपान्त. 2. तामस malignant or loving the darkness तमस् Other Owls "वनासं सुजिह्याक्षं क्रूरमप्रियदर्शनम् अक्रुद्धस्येदृशं वक्त्रं भवेत् क्रुद्धस्य कीदृशम्' । In the following passages and are evidently the inaus- picious large hooting Owls as distinguished from the Owlets which often nest near or actually in human habitations:- “यदुलूको वदति मोघमेतद्-" "कपोत उलूकः शशस्ते निर्ऋत्य-" RV. 10.165.4. VS. 24.38. “गृधः कङ्कः कपोतच उलूकः श्येन एव च चिल्लच धर्मचिल्लच भासः पाण्डर एव च ॥" ‘‘गुञ्जत्कुञ्जकुटीरकौशिकघटाषूत्कारवत्कीचकः” 177 शब्दकल्पद्रुम under पाण्डर. उत्तररामचरित, 2.29. One who kills his friend is reborn as a large Owl destined to kill innocent (i.e. friendly) birds all his life - "कौशिको मित्रहन्ता -" गरुडपुराण, 2.2.80. These hooting Owls have been mentioned as उलूक, कौशिक or धूक both in बृहत्संहिता 42.62; 85.49 and वसंतराज ( pp. 245, 246). With these prelimi- nary observations we may now proceed to a brief consideration of the various types of Owl, their Sanskrit names and some references to them in literature. OWLETS: 6. The common Spotted Owlet of the towns, villages and gardens is the best known Owl in India. This is the wor bird of augury men- tioned as पिङ्गला in बृहत्संहिता, 87.4 and as पिङ्ग, पिङ्गला, 2 पिक्षण, पिंगचक्षु, and पिंगलिका in the 13th Varga of . In this work the bird's call-notes consisting of one to five syllables, its attitudes and movements have been described and interpreted in great detail for purposes of augury. The बगंला (खर+गल, कण्ठ, noisy) of ऋग्वेद 7.104.17 and अयवंवेद, 8.4.17 would seem to be this Owlet. Similarly the कृकालिका of the काकोलूकीय of पंचतंत्र who conducted the day-blind Owl to his nest-hole should be this bird which does not shun of 1. रक्तनासिक (fr. रक्तनास) for an Owl in the lexicons seems to be a wrong reading , for no Indian Owl has a red or reddish bill. The Himalayan Wood Owl, however, with its fleshy-yellow bill makes the nearest approach to the adnoun. This तंवाख्यायिका in a slightly different form. verse occurs 2. FT may well mean yellow-eyed, and if so the name would correspond to हरिलोचन for the larger Owls. Birds in Sanskrit Literature day-light. The name (Owl's hand-maid) is perhaps based on a similar but more ancient story. 7. Smythies refers to certain calls of Owls as "having the character of 'songs', i.e. either one note or a simple combination of notes repeated at varying intervals" (p. 310). Thus the call of the Brown Wood Owl is said to consist of four deep musical syllables, who-hoo-hoo-hoo (ibid.). This reminds one of the story how the sage Närada was advised to learn music from an Owl residing near the Mänasarovara lake on the Himalayas: 178 "उलूकं पश्य गत्वा त्वं यदि गाने, रता मतिः मानसोत्तरशैले तु गानबन्धुरिति स्मृतः ॥" X X "गंधर्वाः किन्नरा यक्षास्तथा चाप्सरसां गणाः” X X "गानविद्यां समापन्नाः शिक्षितास्तेन पक्षिणा" ॥ लिङ्गपुराण, II.2.7-10 The point is that the ancient Indians also appreciated the musical calls of the hated bird! Now the Western Himalayan Barred Owlet, occurring from Muree to Simla and from Garhwal to Eastern Nepal, is not only the most diurnal of all Owls but has also "a really very beautiful rippling call: a whistle consisting of notes running into one another and dying gradually away" (S. Baker in F.B.I., 2nd edn.). Similarly the Eastern Collared Pigmy Owlet of Nepal has a "rather metallic tonk-ta-tonk-tonk, high pitched (call), usually repeated many times. Often heard in the day- time" (Smythies, p. 311). The former goes by the name of in Hindi which is the same as Sansk. हुण्डुल for a small Owl. हुण्डुल (दुदु इति शब्द f) is probably an onomatopoetic word and would seem to be related to Prakrit सुंदुओ for जीर्णंघण्टा, an old or perhaps a small and slightly damaged bell. The name therefore clearly refers to the bell-like notes of the above two Owlets, and both are दुण्डुल क्षुद्रोलूक. 8. The Scops Owl is practically the same size as the common Spot- ted Owlet but unlike the latter it is entirely nocturnal and possesses well developed aigrettes which are carried in an erect position. The call is a soft and musical too-whoo or too-whit. It should be the age mentioned in frunder, after the erect ear-tufts of the bird. 9. The body-plumage of the Northern Bay Owl (11.5") is of a chestnut colour on the upper parts including the tail, and vinous pink below. It occurs in Nepal and further east in the Himalayan valleys. It is entirely nocturnal in its habits and in the day-time the most stupid and incapable of all Owls, allowing itself to be captured by the hand and, when released, 1. The bird of these verses would seem to be the Himalayan Brown Wood-Owl with a "deep musical call-who-hoo-hoo-hoo" (Smythies) Other Owls sitting dazed in the sunlight. During the breeding season it excels all other Owls in the appalling nature of its cries as if half-a-dozen cats are fighting (S. Baker). The adnouns fera (blind by day) and (having atrocious calls) found in the synonymies for the Owl are therefore more true of this than any other Owl. frere for a kind of bird (the Cat-bird) in the following could well be for this bird except for the fact that of fare in Prakrit means the flying-fox or the large fruit bat:- "बिडालोऽपि खगान्तरे"– विश्वप्रकाश. 179 The most fitting name for this Owl, however, is ars (the reddish Owl) which was emblazoned on the flag of the tribe and called ताम्रेलूक ध्वजा in Ch. 16 of कौमारिका खंड of स्कन्दपुराण. See also मत्स्यपुराण, 148.90. 10. The Indian Brown Hawk-Owl (12.5") is brown above and white marked with large drops of light brown below. It has no aigrettes and has a soft call of whoo-hoot repeated twice or thrice. It is known as in Bengal and the name corresponds to Sansk. पेचक but not (M.W. under sub sub voce). 11. The Long-eared Owl (14.5") is distinguished by long tufts, usually borne erected (Ency. Brit. 11th edn.) and is most probably the w which has served as a model for the face of a particular attendant of:- “कूर्मकुक्कुटवक्नश्च शशोलूकमुखास्तथा ।" -M.Bh. 9.45.79. Again, one of the 'måtris' of the same deity is said to have had a face like that of the शशोलूक :- “शशोलूकमुखी कृष्णा कर्णप्रावरणा तथा" । ch. 30 was in the Venkateshwara edition is a misprint. This Owl breeds. in the Himalayas and is found in the outer ranges from Kashmir to Sikkim. 12. The Short-eared Owl (15") is a winter visitor and prefers thick grassy plains of the Terai areas of North India. Its ear-tufts are so small that they are "hardly discernible even at close range" (Smythies). Its call is a shrill clear keaw, keaw (ib.) and the name (affee ध्वनियंस्य — विकाण्डटीका) for an Owl would seem to belong to it. The only other Owl having a call like the Crow's is the Snowy Owl (Para. 20 below). The correct form of the word is probably as in and aft, and like simply means an Owl in general. If so the short- eared Owl has no particular name in Sanskrit. It is however also possible that both the forms and existed and had different meanings but came later to be mixed up. HOOTING OWLS: 13. If उलूक and कौशिक are common names for all large Owls irrespective of their calls, the name धूक ( पू. पू. शब्देन फायति) is specific for Birds in Sanskrit Literature hooting Owls. पेच or पेचकर again, is a hooting Owl (पेचक: के हेमचन्द्र ) and if from root , 'to burn or bake' the name may well refer to the darker coloured birds like the Brown Fish-Owl, "a large heavy brown" bird and the Indian Great Horned-Owl described as "a large dark brown owl" (Salim Ali ). The name कुलाल (को भूयां लालयति शावकान् ?, cf. कुलाली शकुनिका, Art. 40), on the other hand refers to the habit of laying the eggs and bringing up the young on the bare ground which is characteristic of Scully's Wood-Owl, the Himalayan Brown Wood-Owl and a couple of others. There is yet another classification of these Owls with respect to the presence or absence of ear-tufts. The Wood-Owls have no tufts on their large round heads and they are the gs of the Mahabharata, cf. कुम्भवश्वस्तु कुम्भक: M. Bh. 9.45.75:- "हृत्वा पिष्टमयं पूपं कुम्भोलूकः प्रजायते" 180 13.111.101. One may well ask, what exactly is the connection between and the Owl? g is a pan-cake made from batter prepared with some flour. and the cake on being fried in oil or ghee assumes a brown colour and is pitted all over in a lighter shade, thus resembling the mottled plumage of the bird, and hence the propriety of the sentence on the person guilty of stealing the cake. M.Bh. 14. Other members of the group possess long pointed ear-tufts which emerge outwards in a curve from the head. These are the Fish-Owls and the Horned-Owls one of which, said to be a resident of the Himalayas and given the fully descriptive name of T, is mentioned in the Mahābhārata as a long-lived bird अस्ति खलु हिमवति प्रावारकर्णनामोलूक:- 3.199.4. The section of da, on the other hand, mentions the Crow-killing species of Owls, their king af and the latter's minister STO. Now as there is only one particular species of Owl in India, the Dusky Horned-Owl, that kills and eats Crows, the very apt name of To belongs to it. There is also a clear reference to the Crow- killing habit of this Owl in the Ramayana. When after a break with रावण, विभीषण goes over to Rāma the latter's ally सुप्रीव warns him against the Owl-like tactics of the enemy:- "निहन्यादन्तरं लब्ध्वा उलूक इव वायसान् ।" 6.17.19. Again, was after seeing this Owl work havoc among the Crows at night that a determined to kill the e's while asleep during the night (M.Bh. 1.2.296), and the Epic gives us an interesting description of the bird:- 1. I believe it is possible to deduce the meaning of 'the brown colour', the colour of charred or burnt material, in a secondary sense from the root q to bake or burn (M.W.). Other Owls "उलूकं घोरदर्शनम् महास्वनं महाकाय हर्यक्षं वधूपिङ्गलम् । सुदीर्घघोणानखरं सुपर्णमिव वेगिनम् सुप्ताञ्जधान सुबहून् वायसान् वायसान्तकः ॥” M.Bh. 10.1.36 The re, the powerful Bearded Vulture:- also relates the above incident and calls the Owl after 181 "ततोऽपश्यत्समायातं भासं द्रौणिर्भयंकरम् क्रूरशब्दं क्रूरकायं बभ्रुपिङ्गकलेवरम् ॥ स भासोऽय भृशं शब्दं कृत्वालीयत शाखिनि सुप्तान्काकान्निजघ्नेऽसौ अनेकान् वायसान्तकः" || ब्रह्मखंड, सेतुमाहात्म्य, 31.44-45 We have, therefore, Taor - for the Fish-Owls and Horned Owls as a group, and वायसान्तक-उलूक or भासोलूक for the Dusky Horned Owl. for a kind of Owl in M. W. may be one of these (cf. above), or the name, more probably, refers to the next bird, the महाकौशिकः 15. The magnificent Forest Eagle Owl (24") is one of the largest and the most powerful members of the entire family. It is dark brown above and fulvous barred dark brown below and wears long dark brown aigrettes. like its cousin, the Great Horned Owl. The feathers on the face are bristly and the tarsus is fully feathered. It breeds in the outer Himalayas in the North and in the forests of the Nilgiris and Malabar in the South. It is bold and daring like an Eagle and preys much upon the same kinds of birds and animals as an Eagle does. "As soon as it is twilight it sallies off after its prey and when hungry does not hesitate to hunt by daylight. For this purpose it quits the heavy forest and takes to the open country, light scrub and bamboo jungle, or thin deciduous forest. This Owl is certainly the boldest of all Owls. It preys constantly on the largest pheasants, jungle-fowl and does not hesitate to attack pea-fowl...saw one feasting on a big civet. cat which showed by the marks that it had been killed by the bird. The power of its grip is extraordinary and it will drive its claws half deep into the leg or arm of a man. The usual note is a very deep mumble, and when, as was often the case, a pair perched on my house-roof at night, the noise sounded just like two old men conversing in very deep tones. It also has a loud caterwaul-a single note very seldom used but very piercing. It eats fish, snakes and monitor lizards as well as game etc. and inch 1. The sources of adnouns like पोरदर्शन, हरिलोचन, and क्रूरराविन् of the lexicons for an Owl are perhaps to be found in these passages. The Dusky Horned Owl has been compared to because of its very pale grey plumage resembling that of the Bearded Vulture. 2. Also a call of "two soft but resounding booms at about 3 seconds interval and nudible from a great distance"-Smythies. Hence the Hindi name of gg for it. 182 Birds in Sanskrit Literature will also devour carrion, for I once disturbed it eating the remains of a tiger and once that of a goat" (S. Baker in F.B.I., second edition). It is also "said to kill...young deer" (Blanford and Oates, F.B.I., first edition). 16. This Owl is the greit ('the great bird', in Prakrit) of the lexicons, the grf (the Great-Owl) of Garuda Purana, and the carrion-eating Owl of the Mahabharata. as under:- defines it "महापक्षी च कृष्णोऽसौ नक्तकः कृतमालकः ।” i.e. the great bird is of a dark colour and an Eagle of the night. is a homonym and means (i) the tree Cassia fistula, known also as g and g (beautiful leaved or gold-coloured), from its long drooping racemes of yellow flowers regarded as garlands (ar marda); (ii) the spotted deer which occurs in flocks or in long lines when on the move; and (iii) one wearing a sort of garland or tuft of some thing. The last meaning is not given in the lexicons but in the present connection the adnoun , descriptive of a bird, is comparable with the Sansk. names and for for the Tufted Pochard (Art. 84, C.). In this sense the epithet would seem to refer to the long ear-tufts on the Owl's head. But it is also possible that the author of the wishing to describe the bird as 'a night Eagle' (regi) has used as a synonym or substitute for g due to the exigency of the metre which called a longer word.¹ The phrase gif af used in the Mahabharata for the Dusky Horned Owl, quoted above, would seem to support this last interpretation. Be that as it may, the name it for a kind of Owl in it is fully appropriate to this great bird. In the same way grfir occurring as the title of a charm or a quoted in the Garuda Purana, 1.134 refers to this bird. There the guttaral conversational notes of the Owl have been given a set form just as the various calls of the Spotted Owlet have been conveniently rendered for purposes of augury in वसन्तराज 13. 25-33 and बृहत्संहिता, 87. 38-39. 17. The mythological story of the destruction of the sacrifice being performed by far is related in the Mahabharata, 12.283 where a dwarfish demon born out of a drop of Siva's perspiration pursues and destroys the who having assumed the form of a deer was fleeing up a hill. The physical characteristics of the dwarf are said to resemble those of the ts (Eagle-Owl):- "ह्रस्वोऽतिमात्रं रक्ताक्षो हरिश्मश्रुविभीषणः । ऊर्ध्वकेशोऽतिरोमाङ्गः श्येनोलूकस्तथैव च ॥ करालकृष्णवर्णश्च रक्तवासास्तथैव च ।" 1. शाल्मली, the tree Bombax malabarica, is also a synonym for सुपर्णं, the Golden Eagle which is also सुवर्णाङ्ग; cf. सुवर्णक for कृतमाल; cf. also words like किङ्किरात, पीतभद्र, भृङ्गराज, वज्जुल, i.c which mean both a particular plant and a particular bird सुपर्ण स्वर्णचूडे च गरुडे कृतमालके मेदिनी. Other Owls 183 Here the reference is clearly to an Owl having the habits and courage of an Eagle. for corresponds to the whity-brown bristly feathers on the face of the bird; वंश to the long aigrettes; कृष्णवणं and रक्तवास to the dark brown and fulvous colour of the bird; and afar stands for its soft and downy plumage. It is also interesting to note that the demon, like the Eagle Owl, is made to kill a deer. The wiat would thus seem to be our Eagle Owl. 18. Again, the carrion-eating Owl of the same Epic cannot but be this bird:- "गृधकाकबलोलूककङ्कगोमायुहर्षणम् (युद्धम्) ।" 7.167.83 and the Owl eating away the bodies of sinners in hell with other carrion- birds is the same:- “काकैवेंकैयू कोलूकैर्मशकैयूँ चिकैस्तथा ।” गरुडपुराण, 2.3.14. (Venkateshwar Edition); मार्कण्डेयपुराण, 12.9. (Ibid.) in Hindi as the 19. The Eagle Owl goes under the name of g or and मिगदोरी ( मुगद्रोही -मिगदोन्ही मिगदोरी ?) in Bhutan. This is probably the same of RV. 7.104.22 (-). The Bhutanese name, if it means 'enemy of deer', would also be significant. According to Sayaṇācārya means a fas(?) an Owlet, i.e., a minor enemy. would then be a more powerful enemy working at night and targ, an enemy couple moving about and working together like a pair of birds, cf. "चक्रवाकेव दम्पती" (AV. 14.2.64). 20. The Snowy Owl is again a large bird with a length of twenty three inches and a wing-span of about five feet. It is a pure white bird with a few brown bais on the upper parts and is feathered to the toes for protection against the cold of the circumpolar region which is its breeding home. Its voice is "a cry harsh like the crow's". It is very bold and does not hesi- tate to attack the man who molests him-even dogs. It preys upon wild pigeons, ducks, ptarmigans, fish etc. in day-light but during winter it also hunts at night (Cassess's Book of Birds). In winter it moves down to Central Europe and Central Asia and has once been obtained in North-West Punjab. It is possible that in the long past this Owl bred more plentifully in its native haunts and was therefore seen more often in the Himalayas and the North-West of India. The e renders 45 as a large Owl (5) 1. Prakrit वीरल्ल सउण-उलूकजातीये हु-लापक पक्षिणि of अभिधानराजेन्द्र exactly corres ponds to the name श्येनोलूक, वीरल्ल means श्येन हु-लापक calling हु हु, clearly points to the Hindi name for this Owl. iter in ter is a bird of prey, the Kite. The crested Serpent-Eagle is called a (fr. Pr. ge a hill; Hill-Kite) in Hindi, Although the Owl has brown eyes the demon's red eyes emphasize his fiery nature. 2. पेचक clearly implies that पाक is not a क्षुद्रोलूक. 1. Indian Grey Shrike 2. Indian Baybacked Shrike 3. Rufous backed Shrike 4. Indian White-bellied Drongo 5. Indian Golden Oriole PLATE I 6. Crowbilled Drongo 7. White-breasted Swallow Shrike 8. Marshall's lora 9. Grey Hypocolius or Shrike-Bulbul 10. Waxwing 1. European Tree Pie 2. Tawny Pipit 3. Redthroated Pipit 4. Central Asian Water Pipit 5. Upland Pipit 2006 PLATE II 11 6. Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail; Head of Grey-headed; Head of Turkestan Blackheaded. 7. Indian White Wagtail Head of Masked Wagtail 8. Northern Yellow-headed Wagtail 184 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and the name of a particular by killing whom Indra received the title of grea (ibid.). re also means' 'a child' and the 'grey or white colour'. The term rs may thus refer either to an Owlet (fir of wr) or a large white Owl just as means the all-white Swan (Art. 84-A). 21. Now it is quite possible that this powerful Owl capable of killing large birds and bold enough to attack man was the physical basis for the qe Demon killed by Indra just as the gigantic Adjutant Stork (6) is at the bottom of the mythological erg (Stork-Demon) killed by young Krsna. We also have the various types of Demons (g) named after large birds like , , , etc. in the Rgveda, 7.104.17. Finally the adnoun means both an Owl and a demon (para 2, Art. 48). If the above conjecture has a certain amount of probability in it the name rets may well belong to the Snowy Owl. The epithet of 3 for Indra also may have something to do with his killing the 'Owl-demon', the पाक राक्षस, 1. भागवत, 10. 11.48 ff Cf. also पूतना in bird form in हरिवंश 2.6.22 and the two sons आदि and [बक (Black and White Ibis) of अन्धकदस्य in मत्स्यपुराण, 156, 11 f 1. Red-faced Malkoha 2. Sirkeer Cuckoo PLATE III 3. Hawk-Cuckoo 4. Blossomheaded Parakeet 5. Layard's Parakeet 8 6. Ceylon Lorikeet 7. Violet Cuckoo 10 8. Banded Bay Cuckoo 9. Small Cuckoo 10. Drongo Cuckoo PLATE IV 1. Changeable Hawk-Eagle 2. White-Bellied Sea-Eagle 3. Hodgson's Hawk-Eagle 4. Short-toed Eagle GM. Henry 5. Eastern Steppe-Eagle 6. Greater Spotted Eagle 7. Golden Eagle 8. Imperial Eagle L INS 1. Rufousbellied Hawk-Eagle 2. Crested Serpent Eagle 3. Forest Eagle Owl PLATE V BALCONVEN 4. Crested Hawk-Eagle 5. Grey-headed Fishing Eagle PLATE VI 1. Spotted Sandgrouse 2. Large Pintail Sandgrouse 3. Tibetan Sandgrouse 4. Coronetted Sandgrouse 5. Imperial Sandgrouse 6. Indian Sandgrouse 7. Painted Sandgrouse 50 OSPREY 1. The Osprey stands in a family by itself, being in some respects a link between the Owls and the diurnal raptores. It is a magnificent fisher, and dives from a great height for fish which is its principal food. It frequents large rivers and lakes and also the sea along the coast. Its voice is a short shrill musical whistle repeated a number of times at a stretch. Unlike the Fishing and the Sea Eagles it does not stoop to eating carrion. It is brown above and white below, with a whitish head. It known as and महरंगा in Hindi corresponding to फुरर and मत्स्यरक ( श्येन) in Sanskrit. Recognition of as a bird of prey is to be found in the fact that it is supposed to be the progeny of भासी the sister of श्येनी :- “श्येनी श्येनांश्च भासी च कुररानप्यजीजनत्" पद्यपुराण, सृष्टिखण्ड, 6.64, are and later lexicographers have treated and as synonymous and have therefore done away with the old distinction between the Osprey on the one hand and the Fishing and Sea Eagles on the other simply because they too like the former kill fish for food:- "उत्क्रोशकुररी समौ”–अमर "उत्क्रोशो मत्स्यनाशनः कुररः" - अभि. चिन्तामणि "कुररो मत्स्यनाशनः ।" —हारावली and , however, have kept them apart, the former as and the latter as 3 and the same distinction obtains in Buddhist and Sanskrit literature as well. डल्हूण on सुश्रुत explains कुरर as "कुररश्चियाकारो नादोत्यापितमत्स्य, हस्तमलपग्राही, कुरल इति लोके" and उत्क्रोश as 'कुररभेद' ie a bird resembling, or a kind of g. This is as it should be, for the fishing 1. This equation is really a homonymous one covering the Osprey, Fishing Eagles, Gulls, Terus and the Curlew. For the last two it must be taken in the feminine gender- estat gewat. See Art 68. For e as the Demoiselle crane See Art. 62. Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles and the white-bellied Sea-Eagle have very loud and raucous calls. and are therefore, whereas the call of the Osprey is a shrill musical whistle and it is for this reason कुरर मत्स्यरङ्क is a common name for Kingfishers and has been extended to these large fishers both in popular nomenclature and in poetry. The fishing Eagles do not dive for fish but take it from the surface of the water or from the shallows. in the following verse is therefore the Osprey diving in the sea for fish: 186 "मत्स्यरडकनिरातङ्क लवणाम्भसि मज्जसि इयं हि जाठरी ज्वाला व्याकुलीकुस्ते न कम् ॥" F: in the following are either Gulls or Ospreys: "अस्माद् हंसा जलक्लिन्ना: पक्षैः सलिलरेणुभिः कुरराः सारसाव निष्पतन्ति पतत्रिणः ॥ रामायण, IV.52.12. उद्घट is the Demoiselle crane with the descriptive epithet of fe which rately, if ever, swims and never dives, so also the wr, the Indian crane. Both these birds cannot therefore be intended and 'e': must be understood to mean swimming and diving birds in general i.e., other than the Geese, Ducks and Gulls. 2. The बेस्ांतर जातक, verse 2106, mentions उक्कुस (उत्क्रोश) and कुरर as different birds in the Himalayas and the commentary explains as a 'dark-plumaged' and as a 'white-plumaged' which agrees very well with the dark-grey or brown body-colour of the Fishing Eagles, and the white head and lower parts of the Osprey respectively. There is an interesting play upon the word in its two different meanings of Osprey and Demoiselle Crane in a story of the महाभारत where the fish-eating bird, having, once upon a time, been punished with death for taking life by the vegetarian birds (Swans), is changed into a mainly vegetarian , the Crane: "सामिषं कुररं दृष्ट्वा वध्यमानं निरामिषैः । आमिषस्य परित्यागात् कुररः सुखमेधते ॥ " 12.179.9 This example of the virtue of giving up meat-eating is repeated in ga नागरखण्ड (185.10), and the भागवत has the following: “सामिषं कुररं जघ्नुः बलिनो ये निरामिषाः । तदामिषं परित्यज्य स सुखं समविन्दत ॥ " 11.9.2 11. The Allahabad edition reads सलिलविलव for सलिलरेणुभि: If the description- जलविलना रेणुमि is confined only to इंसा; it is possible to render कुरर and सारस of the second line as referring to the Demoiselle and T cranes. Osprey 187 बलिन: are the Swans See Art. 84A. In the स्कन्दपुराण, however, फुरर, described as holding a snake in its talons, is not the Osprey which does not kill or eat snakes but the .White-bellied Sea-Eagle, which lifts up sea-snakes for food. The line dividing and is so thin that they are often confused both in the lexicons and literature. "आकाशस्थं ददर्शाऽसौ सामिषं कुररं नृप । भ्रममाणं गृहीताहि वध्यमानं निरामिषैः।" रेवाखण्ड. 54.59. -निरामिष: i.e. इसे: as in the verse from the भागवत. For Fishing and Sea Eagles see Art.52C. Gyps VULTURES AND LAMMERGEYER 1. The Vultures of India have been distributed into five genera, four of which are represented by a single species and one by three. Two of these last, the Fulvus and the Himalayensis, look very much alike in the field and appear to be members of a single species as the colour of the plumage in both is variable in shades of fulvous, fulvous-brown and fawn. We have, therefore, six readily distinguishable species of Vulture, and including the Lammergeyer, seven. The following statement shows the genera, the species, their size, and common English and Sanskrit names: GENUS SPECIES SIZE SKT. NAME. Aegypius Monachus 42" काल or श्याव ENG. NAME Sarcogyps 51 Calvus 32* i. Fulvus &) 41"-47" Cinereous Vulture Black V. कुण्डली or रक्ताङ्ग सुमुख or उद्दीपक- गृध Griffon पाण्डर गृध Long billed V. शकुन गुप White-backed fafacer qu Himalayensis) ii. Indicus 38" Pseudogyps Bengalensis 35" Neophron Perenopterus 24"-26" Gypaetus Barbatus. 48" 2. The Bearded Vulture, with a fully feathered head and neck, occupies an intermediate position between the Vultures proper and the true Eagles but has been placed with the latter in the F. B. I. There is reason to believe that the ancient Indians also regarded him both as a Vulture and an Eagle. Later on, however, his affinity with the Neophron (भासक) was recognized under the names भास and महागुष्य, and he is there- fore included in this Article. The term , now a common name for all Vultures, originally applic1 to all birds of prey including the Eagles as is clear from its use in "atan"-RV. 9.96,6, and has been so used in classical literature as well. Thus the snake-lifting qur: of urgarafa, ch. 5 can only be the Serpent Eagles while in बृहत्कथामञ्जरी, 15.212 and प्रबोधचन्द्रोदय, V. White Scaven ger V. Bearded V. भासक, शकुन्त or गोष्ठ कुक्कुट भास, अलज, आज-गृ 189 Vultures and Lammergeyer 4.3 गृध and गृधी mean the Common Kite. धन्वन्तरि indeed defines the Kite as a t. Similarly the term wf also in the sense of a large bird' is occasionally used for a Vulture, e.g. in: "कार्यहेतोरिवायातः शकुनिर्वीयवान् महान् गृध्रराजस्य सोदर्यः सम्पातिर्नाम गृधराटू" रामायण, 5.35,62. 3. All birds of prey are mythologically descended from a common ancestor by different Bird-mothers like wret, st, vat, etc. which shows. their close affinity and yet separates them into subfamilies: “श्येनी श्येनांस्तथा भासी भासान्, गृध्रांत्र गृध्यपि " विष्णुपुराण, 1.21.16. The ancients were expert bow-men and had ample opportunities of studying and gaining knowledge about these and other large birds which they often killed for their quills with which to feather their arrows. The story of prince we is an instance in point : "तस्य छित्त्वा ततः पक्षी गृहीत्वा राजनन्दनः • बाणपक्षान्विधातुं च सोमदत्तो गृहं ययौ" वराहपुराण, 137, 74-77. The describes seven sages or singers as seven Eagles and mentions an equal number of Vultures; “सप्तसुपर्णा कवयः.... सप्तगृधा इति शुश्रुमा वयम्" AV. 8.9, 17-18, and curiously enough six species of true Eagles and roughly, six of Vultures occur in North India, and with the Bearded Vulture included in each group we have seven of each kind as stated above. 4. Vultures appear to have been divided into three groups, viz., (i) गुध, (ii) पाण्डर and (iii) भास, as the following verse from विष्णुधर्मोत्तर quoted in under fe and would show : "कङ्कः गृधः कपोतच उलूक: श्येन एव च गृहे यस्य पतन्त्येते गेहं तस्य विपद्यते ।" The name (i) u would seem to be confined to birds of a dark or brown colour (cf the synonyms धूम्रपना and गृपवा- "गृ इव धूम्रवर्णं पत्नमस्याः" शब्दकल्पद्रुमं; and Kalidasa's description of this darker group of carrion birds-q- " in Raghuvamsa, 15, 16); (ii) to those of a lighter colour; and (iii) w to still lighter or almost white ones. Next we have names for the seven individual species falling within these three groups and they are considered below. (1) The Cinereous Vulture (48") is a bird of immense size and of a uniform dark-brown colour with the neck naked. He is known as f 190 Birds in Sanskrit Literature in Hindi which is the same as कालगूध of ब्रह्मपुराण, 214, 93-94 named as one of the myrmidons of god Yama in hell, detailed to torture persons found guilty of certain offences. The arqu (dark-brown; cf. art, the night) of the following would also appear to be this bird : "उदस्य श्यावो विधुरी गृध्रौ द्यामिव पेततुः" AV. 7.95.1. (2) The Black Vulture (32") is distinguished by his red head and neck and red wattless behind the ears. He is a bird of solitary habits and confined to the outer Himalayas and the plains of India. At a carrion- feast other members of the fraternity often "hold this bird in wholesome respect and give way before its superior spirit and demeanour" (Whistler), and the red of his upper parts and the ear-lappets (gs) being distinctive account for his names like कुण्डली दीपक (flame-red; cf. Prakrit दीवओ - दीपक ), and सुमुख in the list of names of the progeny of गरुड in महाभारत, 5.101,9-12; रक्तोत्तमाङ्ग red-headed; रक्ताङ्ग in M. Williams; cf. रातंग and लालमायाशकुनि in Bengali; and fr-or off-:- “रक्तोत्तमाङ्गः क्रव्यादो गृधः परमभीषणः” – M. Bh. 7.175.18. “कङ्कगृध्राच कणिकाः” – ब्रह्माण्डपुराण, Pt. 2,7.448. "काक (कङ्क ? ) गृधाश्य कणिनः"–वायुपुराण, Ch. 69.327. For the mythological explanation why this Himalayas the reader is referred to Art. 1-B. deserted the higher The carrion-eating forg: of RV. 10.87.7, AV. 8.3.7, and T. Samhità, 5.5.16, rendered as a particular bird of a reddish colour by on AV. and as spotted kites (?) by Griffith would appear to be this Vulture. If, on the other hand, it is an animal, the name may possibly be the same as the later fufe or fufe for the fox or jackal. The interpretation of or T.S. as 'the red-faced monkey' is impossible as no monkey is known to be a carrion-eater. (3) The White-backed Vulture (35") is of a dark leaden colour with a conspicuous large white patch across the rump, white lining to the wings and white flanks. He is clearly the fafanfare of afer. efgar, 5.5.20 from 'arm-pit or waist, also flank'; cf. f, 'wearing a golden girdle'. कक्ष the name refers either to the rump as the bird's waist or to his fanks. The name सुपार्श्व for a son of सम्पाति in रामायण, 4.59,8 also refers to him. This complets the list of q: as dark or brown coloured Vultures. (4) The Griffon (Gyps fulvus, 41"-47") occurs in India in three forms or geographical races, viz., the European, the Indian, and the Himalayan, but they resemble one another so closely that they are not ordinarily separable in the field (Whistler). The head, body and the front part of wings are a dirty white and the remainder of the plumage is brownish grey and black. In the Himalayan form (44"-49") the contrast between Vultures and Lammergeyer 191 the whitish under body and the black wings is conspicuous during flight. The bill is deep and laterally compressed. The Griffons are in the habit of congregating in large numbers fixed resting places on rocky cliffs, but if a good meal is obtained in the plains they assemble on trees. They also breed in colonies on cliffs; cf. que for a fig-tree and que, for a mountain on which Vultures cangregate or breed in numbers. They are evidently the or(-) of the verse quoted in para. 4 above, and the g (having a high or deep beak) of get which also refers to their great size and gregarious habits : "अपि सङ्घातचारी स्यात् मेस्तुण्डो महाखग: " The Griffon is always well represented at a carrion-feast and this fact accounts the punishment in store for a flesh-eating glutton in his next birth- "पाण्डुर: परमांसभुक्"गरुडपुराण, 2.2,71. This vulture is the वायुवेग and af of Mahabharata, 5.101 and is also the basis for the mythological सम्पाति (flying or settling down together), brother of जटायु :- "गृधौ हो दृष्टपूर्वी मे मातरिश्वसमो जवे ज्येष्ठोऽवितस्त्वं सम्पाते ! जटायुरनुजस्तव" - रामायण, 4.60, 19-20 (5) The Northern Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus, 38") is again a pale coloured but much smaller bird than the Griffon. In general colouration he varies from dark to buffish brown, has no feathers at all on the head and scarcely any down on the neck, and differs in this respect from all the preceding birds. He is known as in Hindi corresponding to Skt. , 'rendered as a vulture or kite' in M. Williams. In the follow- ing equation from fet w is specific for a particular kind of bird, and the नामचन्द्रिका commentary on the विकाण्डशेष also renders शकुन as a Vulture and the name should therefore belong to this bird : "शकुनस्तु पुमान् पक्षिमात्रपक्षिविशेषयो: " has been extended to the White-backed Vulture In Bengal the name as well. (6) The White Scavenger Vulture or the Neophron occurs in two sizes (24 & 26") in India. The larger Egyptian variety ranges from about Delhi to the extreme North-West and the smaller is common throughout the country but is rare in the territory of the former. Both haunt towns and villages and live largely on human excreta and dung and occasionally on carrion. The name a really belongs to the Bearded. Vulture but has been applied to this bird as well because of his white plumage. Strictly speaking, however, his size and habits fully justify the more correct name भासक (अल्पायें, फुत्सितायें-कन्) for him, as indeed he is called in the following verse : "कङ्क गृध वट श्येन भास भासक बहिण:" Bhagavata. 3.10,23 (Bengal edition, cited in under wg). 192 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Other names are गोप्ठ, पोष्ट-कुक्कुट, गोष्ठचर, गोष्ठगोचर and शकुन्त. The first four emphasize his mean status and correspond to his European name, 'the Pharaoh's chicken' and the following synonymies connect them with the last name as also with मास:- "भासो घोष्ट-कुक्कुटगृध्रयोः”–विश्वप्रकाश. "भासस्तु भासि गृधशकुन्तयोः" "शकुन्तो विहगे भासे" -हेमचन्द्र The names based on or (a village or settlement of cowherds) refer to the bird's habit of frequenting the neighbourhood of villages but the etymology of the name wg for this particular bird is not clear and even हेमचन्द्र contents himself by merely saying- "सामान्योऽपि विशेषे वर्तते"- अभि० ferte. It is however important to note that the bird goes by the name ta (Dung-Vulture) in Hindi and this may perhaps help to etymolo- gise शकुन्त as शकं, गोमयं पुरीषं वा उनति भेदयति; or शकार्ये उनत्ति गच्छति (?)1, for he is also seen descending to farm refuse or cow-dung. The power of flight of this junior wre in regard to speed and alti- tude has been rated above that of the Sparrows and the Crows and as equal to that of birds like the Storks, Ibises, Herons, etc. () and the Fishing Eagles including the Osprey. Then come in order the commoner Eagles and Hawks, the large or true Vultures, the Swans and. Geese, and finally, the Golden Eagle : "आयः पन्थाः कुलिङ्गानां ये चान्ये धान्यजीविनः द्वितीयो बलिभोजानां ये च वृक्षफलाशना: भासास्तृतीयं गच्छन्ति क्रौञ्चाश्र कुररैः सह श्येनाचतुर्थं गच्छन्ति गृध्रा गच्छन्ति पञ्चमम् पन्था हंसानां वैनतेयगतिः परा" Rāmāyaṇa, 4.58,24-27. It is an admitted fact that the Golden Eagle (वैनतेय, सुपर्ण) soars to a greater height than any other bird (British Ency.-"Eagle"). The White Scavenger Vulture is apparently the most tame and harmless member of the group and soars high enough but not very high. The name in the following, rendered as wf by the commentator, would seem to stand for this bird : “आरण्योऽजो नकुलः शका ते पौष्णा:” -Vaj. Samhită, 24, 32. शकुन्ति means भासपक्षी in शब्दकल्पद्रुम, and गोष्ठकुक्कुट in निघण्टरत्नाकर which therefore settles its identity. God guy is regarded as the keeper of flocks and herds of goats, cattle, etc., and bringer of prosperity. Being toothless he lives on a kind of gruel and is therefore known as also. Of the three living things dedicated to this deity the first is his own mount, the second, an 1. cf. कुन्तः शरीरं उनत्ति भेदयति दारयति वा धातूनामनेकार्थत्वात् उन्द + बाहुलकात् तः। शकन्ध्यादिवत्- साधुः शब्दकल्पद्रुम Vultures and Lammergeyer 193 ichneumon which helps to protect herds of goats and farm animals against snakes and other vermin and must therefore have been a welcome tenant of the early settlements probably even before the cat was domesti- cated,' and the third, the innocuous Vulture being in attendance about the settlements, is indicative of their prosperity and well-being. Soaring low over them he typifies the supervising and protective function of gr. It is not without reason that has no teeth and is compulsorily a vegetarian, for the idea seems to be to place this guardian of the herds beyond the temptation of even killing any of his wards for what would otherwise be to him a dainty meat-dish, and the bird chosen for him is also one that rarely eats carrion and depends principally upon a very low type of soft food. The name weer (v.l. ), again, for 'a bird of prey' would appear to be this Vulture, and the name may well have something to do with (dung) and -r 'to disturb' and have the same sense as wg. Neither of these two names can be from - as this bird has nothing to deserve a name indicative of strength, and I repeat that his Hindi name of 'Dung- Vulture' lends strong support to the derivations suggested above. If, on the other hand, the name wg is also applicable to the powerful Bearded Vulture, it must be treated as a homonym and derived from the root शक्-शातो. This "base and degrading object" is clearly the दिआहमद (द्विजाधम, a mean or low bird) and कीबसउण (v.l. कीवसउण) from क्लीब शकुन 3 impotent or weak Vulture) of Prakrit Lexicons. The ag birds, again, who, according to महाभारत, 1.72.12-13 protected the infant शकुन्तला were apparently a party of these harmless Vultures. He is also the g of a story related in the , II. 438. The Asura-Panis who were the keepers of the cows of Indra and other gods stole and hid them in a deep valley. The gods therefore flatteringly addressed the bird as a gi (having excellent or powerful wings) and commissioned him to discover the whereabouts of the cows. He actually discovered them but, accepting a bribe of afer and afen from the Panis, told a lie and betrayed the trust reposed in him by 1. CI. "बञ्चको गेहनकुले" -हेमचन्द्र, for the pet ichneumon sometimes acts treacherously and kills domestic poultry. 2. The synonymy "भासो भास समाख्यातो पोष्टकुक्कुटायो:"विश्वप्रकाश, has been inadvertently mis-interpreted both in and M. Williams, for overlooking the dual termina- tion of the compound घोष्टकुक्कुटगृधयो: They have incorrectly split up घोष्टकुक्कुट (a single synonym for W) into and and rendered as (i) a cow-pen, and (ii) a Cock! The name simply means 'a bird of a cattle-settlement or of a village'. He is one of the village birds and animals (ग्रामवासिनः) in अग्निपुराण, 231.11. भास as a गुठ in the synonymy is the Pearded-Vulture or the Lammergeyer. 3. CI. क्लीब जीविका in महाभारत, 3.33.13. Prakrit गुत्थंडो for भास पक्षी in देशी नाममाला would refer to this Vulture if गुत्थंडो is from गूथ and स्वण्डिल open ground or अण्डज bird; cf. as an adnoun for the Pied Myna. 194 Birds in Sanskrit Literature the gods. Indra, suspecting what had happened, took the bird in his hand and proved his deceipt by squeezing out the after eaten by him. He then let him go with the curse, "May thy sustenance be of bad origin", and that is why the bird now feeds on what is found in the dirty outskirts of a village :- “सुपर्णे इमा नो गा अन्विच्छेति । तथेति ..... तस्मै हान्वागताय सर्पिः क्षीरम् आमिक्षां दधीत्येतद् उपनिदधुः ।...... सुपर्णेष एव ते बलिर्भविष्यत्येतदन्नं मा नः प्रवोच इति । तं ह तच्छ- शापाऽश्लीलजन्म ते जीवनं भूयाद् यो नो गा अन्विद्य ता न प्रावोच इति । तस्य हैतद् ग्रामस्य जघनाघें यत्पापिष्ठं तज्जीवनम।" जैमिनीय ब्राह्मण' II. 338 Needless to say that the story is based upon the habits of the bird and fully supports his later names like गोष्ठ-कुक्कुट and गोबर गीघ. The statement attributing the power of separating milk from water to this Suparna in the Vedic Index-of Names Subjects is incorrect. 7. The majestic Lammergeyer (Lamb-Vulture) or Bearded Vulture. (48") is a huge Eagle-like bird distinguished from other Vultures by a fully feathered head and neck, and a beard consisting of a tuft of long black bristles descending perpendicularly from the chin and similar brist- les overhanging the base of the upper mandible (correspoding to moustaches in man). The head and throat are white speckled with black; neck all round, and lower parts white, tinged with ferruginous; upper back and small wing-coverts black; and the remaining parts including the wings deep silver grey. In flight he has a wing-expanse of about ten feet and is altogether the finest of all Vultures. He is a denizen of the Himalayas, keeps to rocky hills and mountains, and is usually seen beating regularly high over precipices and slopes with a steady sailing flight. He also occasionally soars at great elevation and was observed at the immense height of 24,000 feet during one of the Mt. Everest Expeditions (Journal of the B.N.H.S., XXX. 874-875), "The Lammergeier eats carrion but prefers above all things, to feed on bones, swallowing the smaller whole and carrying the larger in his claws high up into the air and dropping them to shatter to pieces on the rocks below, where at its leisure it collects and devours the fragments", and birds on the sea-coast or rivers deal with tortoises in the same way. He is one of the birds "that have fired the imagination of mankind from the earliest days" and his name 'Lamb- eagle' is a relic of ancient days when confusion with the more courageous Golden Eagle credited him with depredations amongst sheep, goats and even children (Whistler). 1. Translated in J.A.O.S. 19, 97 ff. 2. This clearly shows that the WTH of the Ramayana quoted above cannot be this bird. The WITH bird that was occasionally cooked on a spit and eaten (- भास- चरक, 26,86) was evidently this vulture and not the filthy Neophron. Vultures and Lammergeyer 195 in the Samhitãs and The oldest Sanskrit names for this bird are ar noted in the additional list of Vulture-names in afa. farfer, and both probably derive from अज a goat. अलज, from अल्-भूषणे and अज, should mean 'ornamented like a wild goat, i.e., possessing a beard' while ar should be 'one resembling a goat in some particular detail, e.g., the beard'. Once these names were given to the bird it would indeed not take long for the popular mind to forget the etymology, re-interpret the names and attri- bute to him the habit of carrying off kids, lambs, etc. It is also possible that the Indians took over the Central Asian tradition mentioned by Whistler. This may also explain the name age for of the progeny of Garuda in Mahabharata, 5.101, although the Golden Eagle is better enti- tled to the name as he actually lifts young lambs from villages and young of the Tahr, Barhel, etc. in the Himalyas. His size and soaring habit has won recognition for him in Vedic ritual, for he is dedicated to the deity of the sky or the intermediate space. between heaven and earth: "aaafar: "Vaj. Samhità, 24.34. Two of the fire altars in âfer. efgar 5,4,11 are to be constructed in the shape of the and birds. Sāyaṇa regards them as varieties of Eagle, "great vieredarara conferèel", and distinguishes the two from the shape of the head and claws, and it may be added that this Vulture has, like other members of the family, blunt claws whereas , Palla's Fishing Eagle, is armed with very sharp ones. In his notes on the same Samhità, 5,5,20, he renders as T, viz., this bird, which again is quite correct. The name w is after his grey-white head, neck and underparts. It is this we who is mentioned as one of the nobler birds possessed of great powers of flight: “हंसभासश्येनसुपर्णादयः पतविप्रवराः । Bhagavata, 5, 24, 6. He is listed under the names of भास and वट in भागवत, स्कन्दपुराण, महाभारत, etc. with other carrion-birds. , as we know, is the ta (a to hang down and to grow), the Indian Fig-tree (Ficus benghalensis), which throws out tufts of aerial roots from its branches and is for this reason also named जटाल and भूकेश ("भूकेशः शैवले बटे" -विश्वप्रकाश, 'having hair growing downwards) and the similarity of the pendant beard of the big bird to the aerial roots. of the fig-tree may well be responsible for the name ². Moreover when the tree is were the bird is erg. In the alternative, the name may be from -fa with reference to the bird's habit of breaking bones by dropping them on the rocks, and in this sense the name would correspond to his Hindi name ger (bone-breaker). In the following examples and refer to this Vulture : 1. "As it sails past on a level with the observer on a mountain top....its absurd little black goatee stands out in clear profile"-Salim Ali, Indian Hill Birds (1949) p. 161. 2. If is Prakrit from , the name may be indicative of the wide expanse of his wrings; cf नभोवट. 196 Birds in Sanskrit Literature "भासामिषादानुसृतैः श्येनैश्वामिषगृघ्नुभिः" (वृतं देशम् ) “कङ्कवटादिभिश्चेतस्ततस्तिग्मतुण्डैराहन्यमाना “गृधकङ्कवटश्येनश्वसृगालादनीकृतान्" "व्याघ्रव्यालाननं रौद्रे: काककङ्कवटैस्तथा" Harivamsa, 2.5.20. आत्मशमलं स्मरन्ति” भागवत, 5.26.32. M. Bh. 11. 16.29 Sk. P. Avanti Kh. 6.33 Yet another name for him is कम्बालायिन् (कम्बल a dew-lap; a little incorrectly rendered as 'a Kite' by Wilson but doubted as a bird name by M. Williams) after his beard hanging downwards like a dew-lap. The Vulture that dropped a bone into a tank from the air was probably this : “पुरा गृध्रेण केनापि नभोमार्गेण गच्छता अस्थिखण्डं स्वकात्तुण्डात् पातितं क्वापि वारिणि” Padma-purāna 8181.64. The possibility of this bird being the mythological भेरुण्ड considered in Art. 81. and then to his red eyes and large body : जटायु according to हेमचन्द्र and विश्वप्रकाश is 'a kind of bird' (खगान्तर) evi- dently in reference to his being the महागुष्य • the Rāmāyana. The name clearly implies 'one possessing tufts of hair' which, as we have seen, is perfectly true of the Bearded Vulture with long narial bristles on the face and a beard on the chin; cf. जटिल for a person with plenty of hair on the face Mythologically जटायु is the son of अरुण and brother of सम्पाति. These names are certainly founded upon the characteristics of three different Vultures. Thus the physical basis of (i) अरुण is the Black Vulture with red upper-parts : "अरुणो गरुडभ्राता जपापुष्पचयप्रभः” Harivarmsa 3. 37.20; (ii) सम्पाति, the Griffon of gregarious habits; and (iii) जटायु, the Bearded Vulture. Both गवड and अरुण, described as birds, were given authority by their father कश्यप to rule over other birds: "एतो सर्वपतवीणामिन्द्रत्वं कारयिष्यतः" M. Bh. 1.31.29, whence the Hindi name of राजगिद्ध for the Black Vulture or अरुण. The description of the dying जटायु in the रामायण leaves no doubt what- ever as to his identity with the grand Lammergeyer. First we have a reference to his dark-grey back and white breast : "तं नीलजीमूतनीकाशकल्पं सपाण्डुरोरस्कमुदारवीर्यम्”– 3.51.45, “तं गृधं प्रेक्ष्य ताम्राक्षं गतासुमचलोपमम्” – 3.68.19. Vultures and Lammergeyer 197 The colour pattern of the bird has already been given above, and as for the eyes, his irides are of a pale orange colour and the sclerotic membrane is blood-red. No other Vulture has red eyes, much less such strikingly red. ones, and I need hardly add how very faithfully the great Valmiki has described जटायु. He has also truly called him गुधराज, महागूध, and पक्षिप्रवर in the chapters quoted from and elsewhere in the work. I conclude with a highly poetic description of his powerful flight: "पर्यायात्क्षणदृष्टनष्टककुभः संवर्तविस्तारयोः नीहारीकृतमेघमोचितधुतव्यक्तस्फुरद्विद्युतः आरात्कीर्णकणात्कणीकृतगुरुग्रावोच्चय श्रेणयः श्येनेयस्य बृहत्पतवघुतयः प्रख्यापयन्त्यागमम्" Mahāviracarita, 5.1. The verse is put into the mouth of Sampati who, listening to the distant sound of his younger brother's wing-beats, anticipates his visit to himself : 'With rythmic beats alternately covering and uncovering parts of the sky; scattering the clouds and thereby exposing flashes of lightening to view; and breaking down the rocky cliffs of the mountain ranges into pebbles and powder, the mighty vibrations of the vast wings of Jatāyu proclaim his arrival from a great distance.' Lastly, the monkey-eating habit attributed to a vulture in the following passage of the Rámāyana is clearly based upon information furnished by sea-faring Indians visiting the castern Pacific Islands where the Harpy Eagle of the Philippines, is said to live chiefly on monkeys :- "ते प्रायमुपविष्टास्तु दृष्ट्वा गृधं प्लवङ्गमाः चक्रुर्बुद्धि तदा रौद्रां सर्वान्नो भक्षयिष्यति" Ram. 4.51, 2. 52 EAGLES, FALCONS AND ALLIED BIRDS The Fishing and Sea-Eagles, and the Lammergeyer belonging to the present group have already been dealt with, the former with the Osprey and the latter with the Vultures for reasons stated in the respective articles. The remaining birds of the group are considered here. In the second Edition of the Fauna of British India (Birds), the Falcons are placed before the Eagles but as the latter are the largest members of the family, I give them precedence in this article. A. TRUE EAGLES 1. In English, the name Eagle is ordinarily confined to the larger diurnal birds of prey which are not Vultures. Seven or eight species of them are known to exist in Europe, and six in India. As a rule the female Eagle is visibly larger than the male. They are "remarkable for the power and stateliness of their flight which is largely soaring-in type, i.e. the wings are not flapped, but kept stretched out, and the bird appears to float through the air". The voice of an Eagle a "not unmusical trilling scream" of several notes. They kill their prey like mammals, birds, rep- tiles, frogs, etc., on the ground, and all, with just one solitary exception, feed on carrion as well. That exception is the Golden Eagle of the Himalayas (Aquila chrysaetos daphnea) while the western sub-species (A. C. chrysaetos) is known to be a carrion-eater. The older belief of scientists that the Himalayan bird also feeds on carrion was recorded in the first edition of the Fauna of British India (Birds) but it has since been definitely contradicted by that keen observer of the Raptores of the Punjab and Himalayas, C. H. Donald, F. Z. S., who after a prolonged and accu- rate study of these birds, has established the fact that the Himalayan sub- species never stoops to carrion, and the earlier statement has now been omitted from the second edition (1922) of the Fauna in justice to the great bird who inspired the sages of the Rgveda in a most wonderful way and played no mean a part in the evolution of Vedic thought and imagery, including even the later Vedanta Philosophy. I must, therefore, record here our grateful thanks to Mr. Donald for his vindication of the honour of the truly noble Suparna, the Himalayan Golden Eagle. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 199 2. All the birds of prey are descended from the primeval Garuda according to the mythological statement in the Mahabharata, 5. 101 where the opening verses give a fairly long list of the names of the Raptores of North India. That a majority of the names are actually after the physical or mythological characteristics of the different birds is hardly open to doubt, though it is not always easy to identify the individual birds with their respective names in the list. The reason is that several names refer to the same bird either according to his different mythological aspects or to actual habits and colour of its plumage. An attempt, will, however, be made to identify some of them, at least tentatively. The Raptores in their totality, are गारुडा: गरुडात्मजाः or गरुडान्वय (the Garuda family) - नैकेमहापक्षिगणैर्गारुडैः शीघ्रविक्रमैः । संपूर्णवीर्यसम्पन्नैर्दमनैरुरगारिभिः ॥ वायुपुराण, 40.3 A further division, indicative of an ancient classification into different groups, e.g. F: (a comprehensive term for the Falconidae, inclusive of the Eagles, Falcons, and Hawks), T. (the Bearded and Neophron Vultures) and qur: (other Vultures) is to be found in another genealogy reproduced in the Purānas with slight modifications. 2 The चरकसंहिता, 1.27. 34-35 appears to confine the term to the Eagles as it separately men- tions other birds like (Osprey and Fishing Eagles) ft (Hawk- Eagles), g(Honey-Buzzard), ³ (the Shaheen Falcon), gfrer (Sparro Hawks), w (Bearded and Neophron Vultures) and qu (other Vultures). सुश्रुत, 1.46.74 adds चिल्ल for the Kites, but omits मधुहा and घूमीका. 3. Apart from being the names of the primeval bird the terms, तायं] and वैनतेय are also synonymous with सुपर्ण as a specific name for the Himalayan Golden Eagle. But it must be remembered that gf and have often been used synonymously in the Rgveda both for the Golden and other Eagles, and for the Falcons. Nevertheless the difference between the majestic Golden Eagle, the Eagle par excellence, and the others was well understood as may be seen from the following examples where the former is either distinguished as the foremost, the strongest and the fastest Eagle or is called the Suparna proper (प्रश्येन: प्रकर्षेण श्येन: the best of all Eagles) as against the smaller members of the group called - "प्रश्येनः श्येनेभ्य आशुपत्वा सुपण", (Rgveda) 1. In Mahabharata 1.66.59. 2. See the typical verse on the subject cited in Art. 51. 3. Also get a bird of prey-M. W. It is red as the King-crow (for) in [शब्दकल्पद्रुम and in अष्टहृदयटका apparently by confusion with धूम्याट, but see in Section D., paragraphs 9 and 10. 4. 4.26.4. For gyvi the Golden Eagle and the Golden Oriole, see Art. 19. 200 "मा त्वा श्येन उद्वधीन्मा सुपर्णो." (Ibid) "वयसां योजिष्ठं बलिष्ठं यच्छ्येन: "(श. ब्रा.) " श्येनसदसि गृधसदसि सुपर्णसदसि" Birds in Sanskrit Literature “तद्यथाऽस्मिन्नाकाशे श्येनो वा सुपर्णो वा ...... "हंसभासश्येनसुपर्णादयः पतत्रिप्रवराः” In the following examples ":" are the carrion-eating "गृध्रा: श्येना बकाः कङ्का वायसाध सहस्रशः ।" "भासामिषादानुसृतैः श्येनं आमिषगृघ्नुभिः ।" 4. As alreay observed in Art. 51 the Eagles":- (Tait. Samhita²) 1. 2.42.2 and Sata. Brah. 3.3.4.15. 2. 4.4.7. 3. 4.3.19. 5.24.6. 5. 7.7.36; 7.97.13. 6. 2.5.20. 7. Verse 304 in the Chapter styled armsafire. 8. 5.4.11. (Brah. Up.³) (Bhagavata) Eagles :- ( महाभारत ) Similarly the name Tez has often been used for the Sea-Eagle (Art. 50). The flesh and bones of Te are ingredients in the preparation of a certain medicated oil in a recipe for the treatment of rheumatism, in wer it is difficult to say what particular bird is meant. If the author belonged to North India it may well be the Golden Eagle but if he was from the South the bird would be the White-bellied Sea-Eagle of the Indian Coast, or again the term may refer to the common Tawny Eagle. speaks of "Seven (हरिवंश) "सप्त सुपर्णा कवयः इति शुश्रुमा वयम्” (अ. वे. 8.9.17-18) and it has just been stated that at least six species of true Eagle are at present known to occur in India, where however as in the West the lammergeyer also has sometimes been regarded as a kind of large Eagle. It is the 'gier eagle' of the Bible, Leviticus, ch. "11,18 and Denteronomy, ch. 14,17. We have already seen in Art. 51 that the Lammergeyer stands midway between the Vultures and the Eagles so that by including it in the g or Eagle group we have seven Eagles representing the seven sages men- tioned in the verse from the Atharva-Veda. The êferta efgars places the ,, viz., the Lammergeyer, on a footing of equality with and for diffierent fire-altars and red in his commentary actually regards as a kind of via or Eagle:- Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds "कङ्कालजी श्येनस्यैवावान्तरजातिभेदौ" । There cannot, therefore, be any objection to the inclusion of as the seventh member common to both the groups, Eagles and Vultures. 201 5. The original physical basis for as the t (snake-eater) was most probably the Sea-Eagle who picks up sea-snakes from the sea or sand- beach and devours them on a nearby tree, and the ancients must have obtained this knowledge either from their own maritime residence prior to their entry into India as a second wave along the Persian Gulf or from their maritime experiences along the Makran-Sind-Kathiawar-coast-line. The Sea-Eagle is certainly the bird who is the T of Acts 4 and 5 of the Nāgānanda Drama of Sriharşa. Here the old tradition of as a snake-eater is fully preserved and we find the Eagles taking snakes from the sea and eating them at fixed perches so that large heaps of bleached bones of snakes have formed under particular trees. This habit of the powerful Sea-Eagle was later transferred to the gr (Golden Eagle) of the Himalayas, who does not, however, kill or eat snakes. Support for the above view is to be found in the following verse where gf clearly refers to the Sea-Eagle:- क्रममाणं समीक्ष्याथ भुजगाः सागरंगमाः । त्र्योम्नि तं कपिशार्दूलं सुपर्णमिव मेनिरे । (रामायण) And yet a knowledge of the true habit of the Golden Eagle not killing snakes is clearly reflected in the story of g granting a boon to the great Cobra of the Jumna whom he subdued that the gf would no more eat snakes marked with his foot-print, viz., the spectacled Cobras and incidentally any snake:-- द्वीपं रमणकं हित्वा ह्रदमेतमुपाश्रितः । यद्भूयात्स सुपर्णस्त्वां नाद्यान्मत्पदलाञ्छितम् ॥ भागवत (10.16.63) 6. a means both a snake and an elephant, so that the name aft (elephent-eater) for Te came to be interpreted as 'the eater of snakes and elephants', though we must not overlook the possibility of an Imperial Eagle actually feeding, on rare occasions, upon the carcass of a dead elephant, as a probable event in support of the name. More probably however, the idea of eating an elephant was taken over from a belief common in Persia and the neighbouring countries of western Asia regard- ing the fabulous Roc or Rukh of immense size carrying off elephants to feed his young. Similarly the habit of the Lammergeyer, regarded as a 1. इत्येष भोगपतिना विह्तव्यवस्थो यान् भक्षयत्यहिपतीन् पतगाधिराज मास्यन्ति यान्ति च गताश्च दिनविवृद्धि तेषाममी तुहिनशैलरुचोऽस्थिकूटाः ॥ Act. 4.6, 2. 5.1.73. For further evidence on the point see section C of this Art. 3. Article on Roc., Ency. Brit., 11th Edition. 202 Birds in Sanskrit Literature kind of Eagle, of eating turtles was also attributed to res. All these attributes, touched up with a little anthropomorphism, helped to raise res to the status of a semi-divine being () destined to play a great role in Hindu mythology: पक्षिजद्दो नराङ्घ्रिश्च तुङ्गनासो नराङ्गकः । द्विबाहु वक्षयुक्तश्च कर्त्तव्यो विततासुतः ॥ नारदपञ्चरात्र in शब्दकल्पद्रुम, 2.8.811, col.1. We have again the picture of Tes or are holding both an elephant and a tortoise as food: and sage The afrage यस्य हस्तिनमादाय महाकायं च कच्छपं । भक्ष्यार्थं गरुड: शाखामाजगाम महाबलः ॥ -रामायण' advising his son res to live on both these in Mahabharata, also describes the semi-human form ofered in these words: ● पुनयन्महातार्क्ष्य द्विपक्षं मानुषाकृति । द्विभुजं वत्रचञ्चं च गजकूर्मधरं प्रभुम् ॥ असंख्योरगपादस्थमागञ्छन्तं खमध्यतः ।। 33.22-23. This composite bird is the Te of mythology and the vehicle of God far. It is quite possible that the difference between the Golden Eagle and the Lammergeyer was well understood, and certain traits or habits of some of the important birds of the group were deliberately attributed to the primeval , their progenitor, so as to account for them in the progeny on grounds of heredity. This is perhaps going too far, but this much is fairly certain that the actual physical basis for the conception of as afer and even of his composite form, is no other than the Golden Eagle. This is clear from the description of the the plumage of THE or gf and his Himalayan home given in grd and elsewhere:- हृष्टानि सर्वभूतानि नाम चक्रुर्गरुत्मतः सुरूपं पत्नमालक्ष्य सुपर्णोऽयं भवत्विति ॥ महाभारत 1.33,23. 1. 3.35.28. Cf. Mahabharata 1.29.43. different. 2. 1.29.13. ff. It is also possible to explain these mythological facts differently: The etymological meaning of is "what moves low on the gound'; is land by the side of water or a hill' so that is what lives in such places'; and fr 'what squats on the ground. The terms may well therefore simply refer to the normal prey taken by of in situations. Now if we remember how mythology has grown up from forgotten metaphors, polynymy, use of equivocal words and false etymology it is not impossible to see how the mythical gef came to have attributes like , etc. and is said to have eaten serpents, tortoises, elephant and even the human fare. Or, are these statements illustrative of the principle terfirar fi: according to which facts must be dressed up in mystifying language. as in a riddle? Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds पक्षिराजो गरुत्मांध नित्यमधितिष्ठतिम. भा. 12.327.7. सुवर्णस्वर्णवपुषा सुपर्ण खेचरोत्तमम् । मत्स्य पुराण, 1.174.47. The of सुपर्ण---- 203 mountain in the Himalayas is mentioned as the breeding place जन्मक्षेत्रं सुपर्णस्य वैनतेयस्य धीमतः । वायुपुराण, 40.2. and another where a certain medicinal herb was known to grow- सुपर्णसुवने गिरी जातं हिमवतस्परि- अथर्ववेद, 5.4.2. The easy, effortless and graceful soaring flight, as also the courage and power to carry off heavier prey of the Golden and incidentally of other Eagles have been fully recognized :- प्र सुष विभ्यो मरुतो विरस्तु प्रश्येनः श्येनेभ्य आशु पत्वा अचक्रया यत्स्वधया सुपर्णो हव्यं भरन् मनवे देवजुष्टम् ।। (ऋग्वेद, 4.26.4) अयं लोकः सुपर्णानां पक्षिणां पन्नगाशिनां । विक्रमे गमने भारे नैषामस्ति परिश्रमः ॥ महाभारत, 5.10.1. The epithet a refers to the soaring flight of the Eagle with wings held stiff on a level with the body, and the real significance of the term be- comes clear when we recall the adnoun for the Swan or Goose which must fly with a rotary motion of the wings and cannot soar. 7. Finally, types of demons and robbers, active during the day and night, have been named after certain birds of prey in RV (VII. 104. 22) where garg is one who robs forcibly even the strong during day-time; गृघवातु, one who robs the weak in the day, and so on. बाज संहिता (11.79) also names different kinds of th f thief. 8. The following six true Eagles of genus Aquila are, everyone of them, a gor v in a general sense, and no individual names for them, with the solitary exception of the Tawny Eagle, are available though I have ventured to offer a couple of guesses based on vernacular names. which however need not be taken seriously at all. (i) The female Golden Eagle measures up to 40 inches and has a wing-expanse er 7 feet. The male is 4-5 inches shorter. The colour of the plumage is brown becoming darker with age, and the feathers of the head and neck are pointed and of a golden-red hue. With powerful feet and long claws the birds are mighty hunters and live on Snow-cock, Monal, other Pheasants, Pigeons etc., and on mammals like young ante- lopes, sheep, and Musk-deer. These Eagles often hunt in pairs, and tak- ing advantage of this trait Falconers used to train them in pairs to hunt 1. The carrion eating Imperial is a tree-breeding Eagle of the plains and lower hills in the outer Himalayas, Sind and Baluchistan and has no right to the title of for गरुत्मान्. 2. Cf. AV. VII. 70.3 cited in Section D of this Art, Birds in Sanskrit Literature gazelles etc. in their natural way. They also carry off lambs and kids from the sub-Himalayan villages. They are to be met with along the Sutlej water-shad, from Kotgarh to the Kailas range in suitable localities, also in parts of Kashmir, Chamba, Simla district and in Tehri-Garhwal as far up as Hursil (fr) within two marches of Gangotri¹. C.H. Donald remarks that the Golden Eagle in flight "shows a large expanse of chest" and this fact has been beautifully recorded by the great poet wreft. Describing the magnificent flight of a number of Golden Eagles soaring higher and higher, he says that the sky, being pushed back as it were by their broad chests, appears to be retreating before them : 204 मनः शिलाभङ्गनिभेन पश्चात् निरुध्यभानं निकरेण भासाम् । व्यूढैरुरोभिश्च विनुद्यमानं नभः ससपेंव पुरः खगानाम् ॥ (facrandf-frare) In the proceding verses the poet has named the birds ताक्ष्यं, गरुत्मत् and सुपर्ण which is perfectly correct. The Golden Eagle, the noblest of all Eagles, is also called gr ("महावीरस्तु गरुडे" मेदिनी) probably for two reasons : (i) for his mythological exploit in successfully bringing away the w from heaven and (ii) as a compliment to his courage and boldness in a state of nature and also as t a trained bird in capturing fawns, gazelles, wild goats, etc., for his keeper. The Chinese practised the art of falconry so far back as 2000 B.C., and even at the present day the nomads of Central Asia train a certain species of Eagle to take large game, such as antelopes and wolves, and tribes in the neighbourhood of Yarkand use the Golden Eagle for hawking purposes and so too the Kirghiz Tartars. A Golden Eagle returning to the fist of his master is illustrated in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. That the ancient Indo-Aryans also were equally familiar with this sport and actually trained the Golden Eagle for the chase is clearly stated in the letter-press to the illustration of the bird opp. p. 822, Vol. 7, Ibid. It runs, "It is the largest bird of prey trained for falconry, and has been used in Asia, especially in India, for taking bustards, antelopes, hares, foxes, and, it is said, even larger animals, such as wild goats and wolves." It is, therefore submitted that many of the metaphors and similes in which gf or figures 1. C. H. Donald. F.Z.S., in the Journal of B.N.H.S. Vol. XXVI, 247 ff. 2. 16.45. 3. "Falconry", Enc. Brit. 14th Edn. The Golden Eagle is still trained in Eastern Turkistan "for hawking and flown at deer, hares, wolves, and even wild boar; and as one can imagine, the eagle's dash and courage is magnificent"-F. Martin Duncan in Birds, Trees and Flowers (Odhans, London, 1947). 4. "Eagle" and "Falconry". Enc. Brit. 14th Edn. 5. Opp. p. 44 of Vol. 9, 14th Edn. 205 Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds in the Rgveda are actually based on the practice of the art. Panini mentions the art of Falconry as "a" in 4.2.58 and Manu (3.164) debars Brahmans living by falconry or dealing in Falcons from ceremonial feasts. H. Kirke Swann, E. Z. S., has also traced in A Monograph of the Birds of Prey, Part I the art of falconry back to 1700 B.C. in Persia and earlier still in China. Thus the commonest picture of bringing away (rendered at places by as food or ) from the moun- tain heights unaided (RV. IV. 26. 4-7) would seem to be based on a trained Golden Eagle capturing a mountain goat or fawn and holding it. down until his keeper took it from him. The pictures depicted in RV. IV. 26.4-7 and IV 27 would seem to be based on the performance of a trained Eagle. Take again similes like the following:- सीदंछ्येनो न योनिमा – RV. 9.61.21. श्येनो न योनिमासदत्- RV. 9.62.4. श्येनो न वंसु षीदति - RV. 9.57.3. श्येनो भूत्वा परापत यजमानस्य गृहान् गच्छ तन्नौ संस्कृतम्-वाज संहिता 4.34. and several others which compare , flowing into its proper vessel, with a getting back to the wooden perches (g) or stands meant for hunting Eagles and Falcons in their master's house. The Lugger Falcon, for instance, released for the chase, returns to his master's fist. The f ang relates a story that once left the gods and kept flying high up as a g or Golden Eagle and returned to them only when he was invited. back with the af. This is clearly based upon the art of falconry where a bird flown from the wrist often returns to his master when called back. A tame Golden Eagle will at once perch on the arm extended for him, and he frequently alights on the trees and follows his master from tree to tree keeping him in sight. The female of an Eagle or Falcon is larger and more powerful than the male and it is she who is always the more efficient hunter. For this reason it is invariably the female that is preferred and trained for the chase. This fact has been recognized in गायत्री as the female and गायन as the male Eagle :- 3.4.1.12. यद्गायत्त्री श्येनो भूत्वा दिवः सोममाहत् तेन सा श्येनः- शत. ब्राह्म गायत्रीं हरिणीं ज्योतिष्पक्षां...Ibid. 11.4.1.8. गायवचितं पक्षिणं चिन्वीत स्वर्गकामः कपिष्ठल कठसंहिता 21, 19. 1. Sale of Eagles (gut) and Hawks (v) and theft of these, presumably trained, birds is mentioned in चतुर्वर्गचिन्तामणि of हेमाद्रि Vol. 4, pp. 176 & 244, respectively. 2. See C. H. Donald on the Monograph in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. XXX, p. 895. 3. Jerdon; See also section B of this Art. 4. 14.3.10. 5. British Birds, Part I. Vol. IX, Birds of Prey. 206 Birds in Sanskrit Literature For the reason why the female ft becomes the (masculine) see section D, para, 3, of this article. It will be seen that the term really stands for the female bird. The highest compliment to the courage of this Eagle is paid when it is said that, during a drinking bout, the courage of god flowed out of his heart in the form of a श्येन – “हृदयात्विषिरस्रवत् स श्येनो पाठिहा भवद् वयसां राजा”-शत. www.¹. The significance of the epithet af (killing with the claws) would be clear when it is remembered that the powerful hind claw of the Golden Eagle with which, backed by the impetus of the swoop, the prey is struck down, is as large as three inches and more round the curve as against two inches of the Imperial and still less of the other Eagles. No wonder, therefore, at the well-deserved epithet or name of gre for him. This reminds one of the name for a kind of bird included in the list of birds quoted from the old refer (probably no longer extant) in the भट्टोत्पलटीका on बृहत्संहिता 2 मुक्तक means a missile like a javelin (cf.

• ) and the term has probably been extended also to Falcons and

Hawks discharged from the hand strike or bring down other birds. Expressions like हस्तमोक and मुष्टिमोक (from root मुच्) used in the सैनिक शास्त्र, lend strong support to this supposition. Applied to other birds the qualifying adjective 'g' clearly signifies their large size in their own class, e.g. फौच and महाकौव्व; हंस and महाहंस महामुक्तक, therefore, would seem to be a Golden Eagle trained to hunt for his master. The simile of 'a great bird sent forth or cast away ft in RV.4 is probably based upon the use of a large bird of prey for hawking. In वाज. संहिता, 24.25 this Eagle has been called a महासुपर्ण distinguish it from the Smaller Imperial or Tawny Eagle called simply g (Kandika 37 of the same chapter) 5, and the almost reverential respect paid to this great bird may be seen in references like : वैनतेयत्र पक्षिणाम् भगवद्गीता 10.30. सुपर्णोऽहं पतत्रिणाम्-भागवत, 11.16.15. where Lord sur identifies himself with him. A few of the other names attributed to this Eagle may now be consi- dered. Fr, golden-winged, is after the light rufous-brown on shoulders of the dark-brown wings. The equation "fr"-eating for a long 1. 12.7.1.6. 2. page 1018. 3. 4.2-3. 4. 9.86.13. 5. In this kandika the imposing Blue-bull or Nilgao, the beautiful Peacock and the lordly looking Tawny Eagle (g) are offered to the handsome af:. These latter are also very noisy (hence named ET, ) singers and the three victims selected for them are also noisy. The है. सं. 5.5.16 substitutes श्येन for सुपर्ण.. In classical litrature also the Tawny Eagle is referred to as vi, see para. (iv) below. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds time or taking long over one's meal-would seem to refer to the snake- eating birds like the Serpent-Eagles or the White-bellied Sea-Eagle; or again it may be a purely mythical name referring to taking a long time to finish off an elephant! frarre is the Golden Eagle who builds as a rule on cliffs and only occasionally on a tree; cf. the description of the sun at dawn as a reddish Golden Eagle who has no nest i.e. who knows no rest and is ever soaring in the heaven - अरुणः सुपर्ण आ यो महः शूरः सदानीक:" RV.A and its synonyms, e.g. it, are truer of the Serpent and Sea- Eagles than this and must be treated as epithets based on a mythical assumption only. The name me refers to the Eagle perching for prefer- ence on a large tree of that name or occasionally nesting on it. Names like Tere, f (mythical, with reference to Indra's bolt made ineffective by सुपर्ण), विशालाक्ष, विष्णुधर्मा (mythical, being the vehicle of God विष्णु) etc. in the rare-list belong to him. The name is perfectly true of him but may also be shared by the Lamb or Bearded Vulture according to popular belief though the latter is wholly incapable of lifting a lamb or kid. (ii) The Imperial Eagle is a sluggish heavy bird, some 5-6 inches smaller than the Golden Eagle. He is of a glossy blackish-brown colour with the lanceolate feathers of the head, back of the neck and sides tawny buff, the head being very much lighter than the Golden Eagle's. The plumage of an adult Imperial is very like that of an adult Golden but a young Imperial has the whole upper plumage tawny buff, wing-quills blackish to brown and the lower parts pale fulvous-buff. The young of both take several years to acquire the adult plumage. In strength, courage, method of flight and of obtaining food they are poles apart. If the Golden Eagle is the most powerful and the boldest of the larger birds of prey, living on Snow cocks, Pheasants, Pigeons, Tahr, Barhel (species of Himalayan goats and sheep) and Musk-deer, the Imperial is inferior in every respect, can hardly kill anything for himself and is content for the most part with carrion and is a constant attendant at slaughter houses. He is also more of a plains bird and places his nest always on trees. He is found throughout the Punjab. Because of his outward similarity with the Golden Eagle the latter has frequently been credited by less expert observers with the ignoble habits of the Imperial Eagle (Donald). This and other Eagles are the carrion eating (म्याद) सुपर्ण and श्येन of the अथवंवेद, महाभारत, etc. 1. X.55.6. 2. XI.26, 3. XI.10.24. 207 मर्माविधं रोरुवतं सुपर्णैरदन्तु दुश्चितं मृदितं शयानम्- अथर्ववेद सर्वानदन्तु तान्हतान्गृधा: श्येनाः पतत्रिण:- Ibids 208 Birds in Sanskrit Literature अतीव हृष्टाः श्वसृगालवायसा, बकाः सुपर्णाश्च वृकास्तरक्षवः । -महाभारत' तान् सुपर्णाश्च गृधाश्र कर्षयन्त्यसमुक्षिताः । Ibide The Imperial and the next two Eagles breed on trees and any of them, more probably the first, is one of the "af" of the Rgveda. The Golden Eagle also breeds occasionally on trees. (iii) The Steppe Eagle is a uniform brown to umber brown bird, a few inches smaller than the Imperial Eagle. He is a winter visitor to North India but has been known to breed in India. His habits are very similar to those of the Imperial Eagle and is, therefore, a gf or like him. (iv) The Indian Tawny Eagle is again a uniform brown varying from pale brown to dark-umber, sometimes whitish on the head and body. He is "a fine lordly looking bird and has plenty of courage,...chasing and robbing falcons and hawks of their booty." He goes under the name of रामर in Hindi which is evidently the same as रागपक्षी (jealous of other birds of prey who have secured food) of the fire which equates it with रणपक्षी, and the latter is defined by the धन्वन्तरि कोश and राजनिघण्टु in a half verse common to both रणपक्षी पिच्छवाण: स्थूलनीडो भयङ्करः । The कल्पदुकोश also gives the same description with रणमत्त: for रणपक्षी. पिच्छवाण means a bird whose quills are used to feather arrows with. The epithet e refers to the large nest of sticks and thorny twigs that he makes and wax to his shrill screams and habit of robbing other birds of their prey. It is this last trait which has given him the names रणमत्त ( श्येन), रणपक्षी and रागपक्षी उद्दीपक (one easily excited) as a bird of prey in Maha- bharata, should be this Eagle as the name corresponds to it. Its entry into a residence was considered unlucky : उद्दीपकाञ्च गृधाश्र्च कपोता भ्रमरास्तथा । निविशेयुर्यदा तव शान्तिमेव तदा चरेत् ॥ M.Bh. 13.104.115 He exhibits several traits of the jackal and therefore shares the names and with that animal. See para. 13, section D of this Article. 1. 7.50.9. 2. 11.16.827. 3. RV. I. 164.10 rendered as a kind of bird of prey' by M.W. is incorrect. This 4. The term is based upon a misunderstanding of the following lexical definition:- पक्षिणा येन गृह्यन्ते पक्षिणोऽन्ये स दीपकः ।- -अभि० चिन्ताo and कल्पद्रुकोश, is a pet decoy-bird used to attract wild ones with the object of trapping or killing them. We thus have दीपक कक्कर, दीपक तित्तिर, दीपक मृग, etc. in the जातक and दीपमृग in . The underlying idea is that of a light (fr) attracting moths & insects to itself. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 209 He is much the most common and most widely distributed Eagle of India but is confined to the drier areas. He is a methodical hunter and preys upon small mammals and birds but attacks even larger birds when pressed by hunger. He also freely devours dead animals even when putrid (F.B.I. 2nd Edn). The carrion-eating brown-plumaged and noisy in the following examples is apparently this Eagle - आधोरणानां गजसंनिपाते शिरांसि चक्रेनिशितैः क्षुराम्रैः । हृतान्यपि श्येननखाग्रकोटिव्यासक्तकेशानि चिरेण पेतुः ॥ श्येनपक्षपरिधूसरालका: सांध्य मेघरुधिरार्द्रवाससाः । विभिन्नं धन्विनां बाणैर्व्यवार्तमिव विह्वलम् । ररास विरसं व्योम श्येनप्रतिरवच्छलात् ॥ कुमारसंभव रघुवंश, 7.46 Ibid 11.60 16.12. गृध्राः कङ्का बका: श्येनाः वायसा जम्बुकास्तथा । बहुशः पिशिताशाच तवाऽदृश्यन्त मारिष ॥ महाभारत, 7.97.13. In the last example the first four of the carrion-eaters are Vultures, Pallas's Fishing Eagles, Adjutant Storks, and Tawny Eagles res- pectively. (v) The Greater Spotted Eagle (27") is a dark almost blackish brown bird though in the younger phase the upper back and the smaller wing- coverts are spotted. He is known as fi in North India and as farm in Bengal. The exact meaning of कलिजंग is not clear but it may refer ( कलि-कलहं ) to the bird's wild clanging cry, jeb-jeb-jeb, compared to a high pitched barking of a small dog by Smythies. furre means one who catches living creatures. "This is a rather sluggish Eagle, often sitting for hours on a perch on some lofty tree" (S. Baker). His food consists in great part of frogs though he also catches fish and kills small birds and mammals for food. (vi) The Smaller Spotted Eagle (25") is also a dark chocolate-brown bird differing from the preceding bird in minor details of the body plumage but particularly in the tail which shows some traces of a paler barring while the tail of the Greater Spotted Eagle is merely tipped paler. This Eagle goes by the name of fame in the north corresponding to Sanskrit जीवान्तक or जीवहर (?), a catcher or killer of living things. He is not so lethargic as his larger cousin but otherwise the habits of both are similar. He is however more of a thief and plunderer of other birds and their nests. His call is a "very high-pitched cackling laugh" (S. Baker). The Indian Black Eagle (Section B, para 3) also is in the habit of plundering birds' nests for their young or eggs which reminds one of the powers of observation exhibited by the great a who mentions Eagles that pull out nests of small birds 210 क्वचिच्छकुनिकुलकुलायपातिनः श्येनाः । Birds in Sanskrit Literature हर्षचरित, p. 82. (vii) The Lammergeyer or Bearded Vulture, as the seventh Eagle of ancient tradition, has been considered in Art. 51. This completes the of gi, the seven Eagles of India. B. HAWK-EAGLES, SERPENT-EAGLES & BUZZARD-EAGLES 1. "The Hawk-Eagles are birds of more slender build with smaller bills, longer and more slender tarsi, and longer tails than the true Eagles" (F. B. I. 1st. Edn.) but of similar habits and are members of the larger group. Almost all of them kill hares for food in addition to other prey consisting of reptiles and birds. They are the शशघ्नी ( शशाद, शशघाती) of चरक, A young Bonelli's Eagle is brown above and rufous underneath while the adult has umber-brown upper parts and a white body mottled with brown. The Crested, the Changeable, and Hodgson's Hawk-Eagle also have the upper parts umber-brown or brown with a coppery tinge. All these hunt hares, birds, etc. and being of a fairly large size (27-29 inches) they are the शशाद- श्वेन defined by सुरेश्वराचार्य in his वार्तिक on the बृहदारण्यक as a large ruddy-brown bird living on hares - "श्येनः शशादो विज्ञेयो बृहत्कायश्च रोहितः" 4.3.1160, 1 The riffe also in its definition of as are describes the bird as of large size but slow of speed: महाकायो मन्दवेगः इति व्याख्यातार: The truth of this statement is confirmed by H. C. Donald who says that though it is easy to train Hawk-Eagles like the Crested Hawk-Eagle, they do not all come up to what may be expected of such large and powerful birds. On the other hand सायण माधवाचार्य commenting on पराशर संहिता distinguishes the Pigeon-hunting smaller Falcons like the Peregrine and Shaheen (श्येन) from the शशाद : श्येनः कपोतादीन पक्षिणो निहन्ति न तु शशमत्ति अतः श्येनशशादी भिन्नजातीयो Thus we have , for the true Eagles and the Falcons, and for the Hawk-Eagles. It may be stated here that the Hawk included under the narne of शशाद in the list of Falcons in the श्यैनिक शास्त्र, 4.20 is the Female मन्दवेग slow in hunting; f: क्षिप्र श्येन, the Perequine Falcon. 2. Ch. 6.5. Bom. Skt. Series. No. 59; Vol. II. Pt. 1; 1898. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds Goshawk trained to capture hares (Section F of this Article). It will be seen that while all शशाद's are श्येन, all श्येन's are not शशाद and to this extent the lexical synonymy of and area is subject to modification, and is right in mentioning (true Eagles) and war (Hawk-Eagles) as different categories in his list of the birds of prey. Some of these we Eagles have specific names as well and they are considered below. 2. M. Williams renders to shine) as a "brown Hawk" and the name clearly implies some peculiar quality of brilliance in the eye of the bird meant. Now the eye of Bonelli's Eagle, whose body- plumage is brown as already described "is peculiarly brilliant and fiery in its glance indicating fierce boldness" (Cassel's Book of Birds). If, on the other hand, the term is rendered as 'round-eyed' it will have no significance as all Eagles and Hawks have round eyes. Ter should therefore be this Eagle. One of the Hindi names for this Eagle is as it often kills Peacocks in nature and the name is from Sank. मयूरघ्नी (Cf. शशघ्नी) which may well have been its name in Sanskrit though not preserved in the lexicons now extant. 211 3. भल्लक and भल्लूक mean a bird of prey as well as the black bear: भल्लूक: प्लवः शकुनिः हिस्रमृगश्च – उणादि, श्वेतवनवासिन् The name for a bird of prey therefore clearly points to the Black Eagle (female, 31", male 27") which is brownish black or black throughout. It is found in the Himalayas in the North and Nilgiris in the South. It is mentioed in the भागवत पुराण “कङ्कगृधवटश्येनभासभल्लुकबहिणः” 1.10.24. It is in the habit of carrying off the nests of small birds and examining them for young or eggs, a trait noticed by are in his . 4. The Indian Crested Hawk-Eagle and Hodgson's Hawk-Eagle possess long crests (free which also means the tail). M. William has af for a 'black-tailed hawk' and the name may refer to these birds after their black crests and as a homonym to the Black-crested Baza with both a black tail and a black crest. The Indian Crested Hawk-Eagle is the बाजराज of श्यैनिकशास्त्र 4.39 corresponding to शाहबाज in Persian. The practice of training the Hawk-Eagles for the chase has been considered in Section F on Hawks. The Changeable Hawk-Eagle is known as शदल (fr. शशादन ? ) in Bengal. 5. The Short-toed Eagle and the Crested Serpent-Eagles in two sizes kill snakes including the poisonous varieties. They are known in Hindi and Bengali as सांपमार and सपंचर which are the same as Sanskrit सर्पोरि, सर्पान्त or art. One carrying off a black cobra is mentioned by - "तावद् गृहीत्वा कृष्णाहि चञ्च्या पादयुगेन च । श्येन: कुतचिदागत्य तरौ तस्मिन्नुपाविशत् ॥-कथासरित्सागर 87.43. The M. Bh. list includes and for types of Eagles and these Birds in Sanskrit Literature names can apply only to these or to the White-bellied Sea Eagle. Another name, a, in the list is probably in reference to the spotted and broad nuchal crest (4) covering the whole nape of the crested Serpent-Eagles (cf. for the Tufted Pochard-Art. 84c). 6. The Indian White-eyed Buzzard Eagle is the sole representative of its genus in India. The iris of adult birds is almost white or pale yellow. and the name gener (white-eyed) for a kind of Hawk in ferrere is for this bird as no other Hawk or Eagle has eyes of that colour. The Buzzard-Eagle (12"-18") is "no bigger than a Crow" and the name (the Raven) of the which is a little larger than Raven. may refer to it or to the Black Eagle 212 C. SEA-EAGLES & FISHING-EAGLES 1. The white-tailed Sea-Eagle is a winter visitor to the north-west of India while the White-bellied Sea-Eagle is a bird of the Indian sea-coast. Both live on fish and the latter also largely on sea-snakes. The white- bellied Sea-eagle is very voracious and seen incessantly returning to one of the big trees on the coast carrying sea-snakes, five to six feet in length, in his claws and devouring them at ease.¹ Both again, do not refuse carrion if available. 2. "The Sea Eagles are among the noblest looking of all birds" and the White-bellied sea-Eagle of the Indian coasts is undoubtedly the bird referred to as the gt (s) diving to the sea to seize serpents in the story of the Prince अयोगृह in the जातकमाला of आयंजूर :- पक्षानिलैलँडितमीनकुलं व्युदस्य मेघौधभीमरसितं जलमर्णवेभ्यः । सर्पान्हरन्ति विततग्रहणाः सुपर्णा मृत्युं पुनः प्रमथितुं न तथोत्सहन्ते ॥ Verse 32. Simiarly the bird belonging to the family of गरुड (पक्षी गरुडवंशज :) led by his love of carrion to pick up a bundle of elephant-hide containing a living person floating on the sea, is this Eagle - तत्र दृष्ट्वा च तच्चर्म निपत्यामिषशङ्कया । हृत्वाब्धेः पारमनयत् पक्षी गरुडवंशजः ॥ The White-bellied Sea-Eagle, again, is mentioned (अधिपः पतलिणां गरूड) catching snakes in the sea "फणावतामुद्धरणेषु वारिधि प्रवाहसिक्ताबुदयाचलस्थितः । वितत्य पक्षावधिपः पतविणां कथासरित्सागर 12.113 as the king of birds व्यशोषयन्नप्रतिसूर्यमायतम्" जानकीहरण, 5.20 1. "Stray Feathers". IV. 423. Cf. चिरात् (चिरं अत्ति) for गरुड-शब्दकल्पद्रुम Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 213 He is known as कोहासा (उत्कोश) and सांपमार (सर्पान्तक) in Hindi. The first name is after the bird's call which is, "a very loud clanging cry of many notes" (cf. of the M. Bh. list) and the second explains itself. The White-tailed Sea-Eagle has merely "a querulous chatter, insignificant for so large a bird" and is therefore not , but being a powerful bird he has been designated as are in the Mahabharata-see below, and cf. सुबल included in that progeny of गयड the Mbh list. 3. The Ring-tailed Sea Eagle of Jerdon, belonging to the same genus, Haliaetus, as the two Sea-Eagles considered above, now goes under the name of Pallas's Fishing Eagle. In North India he is undoubtedly a resi- dent inland bird but out of India his range extends to the Caspian and Black Seas and the Persian Gulf. He is the largest Fishing Eagle of North India and is sub-equal in size to the white-tailed Sea-Eagle. He is fulvous white on the head, neck and upper back including the scapulars, also on the upper neck and breast and dark brown on lower back, rump and the remaining parts. Generally speaking, therefore, the colour-pattern of this Eagle resembles that of the much smaller Brahminy Kite ( with white and chestnut where the other is fulvous and dark brown. From his brown-back this Eagle is the ages and from habit of fiercely of the lexicons in Nepal (See in defending his young at the nest he is also the fear (see section E of the article). He is actually known as Sectlon E). It is this which is described as a kind of var by his gloss on d० सं० 5.4.11. He is मछरंगा or मखमंगा (Sansk, मत्स्वरङ्क) in Hindi, and मछकोरल (मत्स्य कुरर) and बल in Bengal. Now बल (powerful, strong) as a carrion eating bird, mentioned with, Pallas's Fishing Eagle, at several places in the most probably refers to the white tailed Sea-Eagle, and both occur in North India. M. Williams renders merely as a 'Crow' but in the St. Petersburg Dictionary it is (i) a Crow and (ii) a bird of prey. The passages given below mention with Tor and leave hardly any doubt as to its identity : सम्पतन्तश्च दृश्यन्ते गोमायुबलवायसाः (6.100.27) बलानां वायसानां च पुरस्तात्सव्यसाचिन: (7.88.4) गृधकाकबलोलूककङ्कगोमायुहर्षणम् (7.167.43) गृधाः कङ्का बका: श्येना यातुधानास्तथा वृका (5.143.19) Here is the white-tailed Sea-Eagle, g Pallas's Fishing Eagle, the Tawny Eagle, and the Adjutant Stork-all carrion eaters. The follow- ing again from the grar clinches the point : गुधकङ्कबलवासीदन्तरिक्षं समावृतम् (7.129.19) Here and are said to be soaring high in the sky in company with the Vultures and they are the above two Eagles as a Crow is not common- ly known to fly, much less t o soar, so high whereas the White-tailed Sea- Eagle and Pallas's Fishing Eagle are undoubtedly high-soaring birds. The northern version of the Ramayana also mentions as a carrion-bird :214 Birds in Sanskrit Literature कङ्कगृधबलानां च गोमायुगणरक्षसाम् । नित्यं भक्ष्यप्रदं युद्धे यमरूपं भयावहम् ॥ (6.171.11.) and the commentator Govindaraja translates as a kind of qu or Vulture, which, though strictly speaking incorrect, is significant and strengthens the above identification. and again, are compared to (the long-snouted Gavial or Gharial and run (the crocodile) in a metaphor where a battle-field running with blood and strewn over with dead bodies, weapons etc., is pictured as a river. The comparison evident- ly implies the great size of the birds feeding on dead bodies - बलकमहानक्रां गोमायुमकरोत्कटाम् । M.Bh. 7.146.35 कङ्कगृधमहाग्राहां नैकायुधझषाकुलाम् Ibid. 7.131.120, 4. carrion-eaters, again, the last viz. the white-tailed Sea-Eagle and Pallas's Fishing Eagles would seem to be the fa and HE respectively of the passage below:- अलिक्लवा जाप्कमदा गृधा: श्येनाः पतत्रिणः । ध्वांक्षाः शकुनयस्तृप्यन्त्वमिथेषु समीक्षयन् रविते अर्बुदे तव ॥ A.V. 11.9.9. af is apparently a difficult word to solve but if the element afer in the sense of a bee per Sayana on af in AV. 8.6.1 is the same as aft, it may well mean 'one that is terrible to or is feared by the enemy, and the term would qualify the carrion-birds named as an adjective. am also takes it that way though he explains it as ""+f. The second name , is perhaps derived from ² or , a fish, and refers to a carrion- bird that owes its great strength to eating fish or has an ardent desire for fish-food. In this sense the name corresponds to and the only carrion-bird that fulfills this character is Pallas's Fishing Eagle. 5. The Grey-headed Fishing Eagle occurs in two sizes in North India. The large form is not found west of Delhi and the smaller variety is con- fined to the outer Himalayas and descends as far south as Lucknow only, during winter. None of them would seem to be comprised within the term though like the others they too eat carrion. Finally, all the Eagles con- sidered above with the exception of the White-tailed Sea-Eagle, are very noisy and have strident calls and the name ew belongs to them in com- mon. The name # occurs in the title of Jataka No. 486, the gra and, and must belong to Pallas's Fishing Eagle as the largest of the three 1. अलिक्लव is mentioned again with गृध्र in A.V. 11.2.2. 2. The form occurs in Taitt, Sam. 5.5.13 corresponding to H in Kathaka Sam 5.7.3. जय also occurs with water-animals like शिशुमार, पुरीकप, and मत्स्य in A.V. 11.2.25. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 215 Fishing Eagles of North India. The epithet clearly implies lesser birds going under the name of उत्कोश, 6. Although the Osprey and the Fishing Eagles have been named differently (Art. 50), their proper status as var has been clearly recognised. Thus the punishment of God Visņu by the bird-form (w) of God Siva is described after the manner of the White-tailed Sea-Eagle or Serpent Eagles stooping again upon a sea or other snake that has slipped out of his talons in mid-air, missing it in the first attempt, and shooting down a second time to catch it : श्येन इवोरगम् उत्क्षिप्योत्क्षिप्य संगृह्य निपात्य च निपत्य च The Osprey or the Fishing Eagle is called a in the ag g² and they would therefore be मत्स्यर श्वेन as indeed their Hindi names like मछरंगा and मछमंगा show. Turning to names in the M. Bh. list it would appear that if by any means सारस, सरिद् द्वीप and जित् refer to the Osprey which dives for fish, the Fishing Eagles which take fish from the surface, shallows or mud- shelves of rivers, and the Harriers which pick up frogs etc. from the marshes respectively, the name should point to a foreign bird like the White-tailed Eagle which visits the country during the winter only. The Himalayan Grey-headed Fishing Eagle is particularly noisy on moonlight nights during the breeding season and may be the basis for the name fram in the list. fr would then be either an Eagle which is noisy during the day or the Golden Eagle as an emblem of the sun (feare) which has often been pictured as a g in RV. D. FALCONS AND HAWKS I. INTRODUCTORY 1. Falcons and Hawks are two readily distinguishable groups of medium and small sized birds of prey within the family Falconidae differentiated not only by certain physical characters but also by their different methods of attack. The Falcons have as a rule a rather plump looking body,, a ring of bare skin round the eyes making for better vision, and long and pointed wings. They have stout beaks armed with a tooth on either side of the upper mandible, and a sharp and powerful hind claw. They attack their quarry in the air and pursue it if missed in the first attack. The Hawks, on the other hand, have a compact body, a long neck, a small head, short rounded wings, a very long tail, and high tarsi. The beak is less vaulted 1. शिवपुराण 3rd रुद्र संहिता 12.15. लिङ्गपुराण 1.25.95. 2. 122,21 ff. 216 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and more compressed at the sides. It has no tooth like the Falcon's but has instead a well pronounced festoon. The bare circle around the eye is entirely wanting. They are more arboreal, hunt low in the woods and hedgerows and pounce upon the quarry on the ground and do not pursue it if missed. A Falcon kills by tearing open the back of a bird with its powerful hind claw but a Hawk overpowers with a formidable grip of its claws and does not immediately kill the quarry. Both have fine large and expressive eyes but their colours are different. A Falcon has brown eyes while the Hawk's are yellow. Both these groups are distinguished in Sans- krit nomenclature as well despite the fact that the term as a general name for all birds of prey other than Kites and Vultures, is, like the English term Hawk, very comprehensive. Falcons are in a restricted sense and Hawks प्राजिक (v. 1. प्राजि, प्र + आजि contest ?), वाजि, प्राजि-पक्षी, वाजी and वाज. The विश्वकोश and हेमचन्द्र give पालङ्क as well for a Hawk ( प्राजि, वाजि, पक्षिणि) but if the word is from पाल् रक्षणे as in शब्दकल्पo it should signify a pet Hawk trained for catching birds. Derived from roots, and signifying 'motion' all the names refer to the fast and powerful flight of these rapacious birds. 2 2. As already pointed out in section A, the art of Falconry, prestat, had been practised by the ancient Indo-Aryans from time immemorial and there are references to it in the Dharma-śästra and classical literature as well. The magical sacrifice called श्येनयाग in षविश ब्राह्मण, 4.2 performed with the object of killing or injuring a particular enemy is clearly based upon the practice of Hawking where a trained Falcon brings down the intended quarry; compare also 'श्येनेनाभिचरन् यजेत्'–आप. श्रौ. सू. 22.4.13ff. मनुस्मृति, 3. 164 mentions a Brāhmana practising Falconry or dealing in Hawks as श्येनजीविन् describes a princely young man bearing on his left hand the scratch marks made by the claws of a Falcon : श्येनाअघ्रिग्रहदारितोत्तरकर: औौचित्यविचारचर्चा, का. मा. Pt. 1, p. 152, The Aquafa gives a highly artificial and forced concept of var in 4. 20. 21 but the much later garmentions the flying of Falcons and Hawks (fe) at large birds as quarries : स हापयत्येव करस्थितेन श्येनादिना पक्षिवराणि भूयः का. मा. Pt. 14, p. 66. , an encyclopaedic work of the first half of the twelfth century from South India contains a chapter on Falconry (-fit, Vol.2, 267) and although the text is corrupt at places it gives a fair idea about the various species of Hawks caught and trained for the chase, the methods of 1. Has the English word "Hawk" any connection with Sansk. forms like, from root in the sense of a bird that is discharged from the hand to catch another bird? Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds catching and training them, their respective merits, the different styles of releasing them after the quarry, and the different kinds of birds a parti- cular Falcon or Hawk is capable of killing. Some of the names for the Falcons and Hawks, current in South India, appear to be of Prakritic origin: सद्य: श्येन विनोदोऽयं कथ्यते कौतुकावहः । शालिवा, जावला, लग्नः प्राजिको लङ्गणस्तथा ॥ संजाणा, वेसरा, गृध्रास्तथा यवलकण्ठिकाः । चण्डी यावावहाः श्येनाः श्येनानां जातयस्त्विमाः ॥ विनोदेषु प्रयु जन्ते ततोऽन्ये जातिमात्रकाः । तोणकश्चेति विख्यातः पुमानल्पशरीरकः ।। Verses 1329-1331. 217 The author of would seem to have incorporated the above names in his list of the birds of prey at page 327 शालियाजावडाश्चैव लङ्गवः प्राज्ञ्जिका अणिः । रङ्गणाश्चैव संवाणा गृधा अपिच बेसराः || अचण्डिका कंविकाश्च द्रोणकाञ्चाबहावकाः । पापद्धि रसिकैज्ञेया गन्धमादनसम्भवाः || Here too the text is parily corrupt. शालिवा has been misread as शालिया, सच्चाण as संवाण, कण्ठिका of यवल कण्ठिका has been separated as कंबिका, and the corrupt चण्डी यावावहा has been read and broken up into अचण्डिका and अवहावा. All these make no sense for me. least. would seem to have been rightly corrected to रङ्गण तोगक, v.1. द्रोणक has been correctly rendered as द्रोणक. Non-Sanskrit names have been underlined above. If fire is a corruption of ff, it may mean 'the noble bird' or 'the noble falcon'. All brown- eyed falcons are known as 'the noble falcons' and the yellow-eyed Hawks as 'ignoble falcons' in English. 3. A later but more comprehensive treatise on the subject is the wife- by Räjä Rudradeva of Kumaon who seems to have lived in the 16th century A.C. In this book the term , like the English 'Hawk', has been used both in the title and elsewhere in the body of the book in the inclusive sense for both Falcons and Hawks, and wife for the Falconer. Sanskrit names of quite a few of these birds, which must have been current in ancient times, had apparently been forgotten due chiefly to the influ- ence of the Jaina and Buddhist doctrine of afger and the effective check exercised by it on the sport of Hawking and the authors of both the above works were forced to use local vernacular names in a Sanskritised garb for some of them. Following the practice of Muslim Falconers Rudradeva classifies the sporting Hawks (v) into two classes: (i) the 'brown-eyed' Falcons as a corresponding to guard of the Persians and (ii) 1. qrafa as a synonym for T should be traced to the same influence. 218 Birds in Sanskrit Literature the yellow-eyed' Hawks as पाटलाक्ष श्येन, the गुलचश्मबाज, and enumerates them as under :- (i) Female Falcons अतोऽनुवध्ये श्येनानां पृथग्जातिविवेचनम् ॥ कृष्णाक्षा पाटलाक्षा च जाती द्वे प्रस्फुटान्तरे । तयोचावान्तरा भेदा लक्ष्यन्तेऽन्येऽपि भूरिशः ॥ तेषां नामानि कथ्यन्ते जातानां जातिमुख्ययोः । कुही, शशाद, चरक, बहरी, लगरास्तथा ॥ तथान्या पक्षकलिका तथा तुरमती परा । पुंव्यक्तयश्च तत्संख्या: कृष्णाक्षाजातिजो गणः | Page 18. The male birds are just referred to in the last line but their names are not given in the book.. (ii) Female Hawks : वाजा, बासा, बेसराध सिचानाच चतुविधाः || Page 19. (iii) Male Hawks : जूरावटाः धूति टुनास्तथा पुंव्यक्तयस्त्वमी | उभयोगंणयोषां स्त्रीणां प्राधान्यमूजितम् । संस्थाने, साहसे, मूल्ये पक्षपातादिसौष्ठवे ॥ बाजाद्याश्च प्रधानत्वात् पुंलिङ्गे व्यपदेशिताः ॥ Page 20. The last three lines stress the well known fact that the female of these birds is definitely superior in size, strength, speed, and sporting qualities and are therefore always preferred to the males for purposes of hawking. This superiority is the foundation of a convention among Falconers accord- ing to which the name of the female bird is always in the asculine gender. This, incidentally explains why गायत्री, the famle Golden Eagle ( the सुपर्ण,), is supposed to be a श्येन (masculine) when she goes up to bring down the सोम:- यद्गायत्ती श्येनो भूत्वा दिवः सोममाहरत्तेन सा श्येनः । शत० ब्रा० 3.4.1.12 and if this explanation is correct the above tradition is very ancient indeed. 4. Foreign birds were often imported by Indian Falconers during the Muhammadan period and these were what are known as "the great nor- thern" Falcons (Hierofalco, the sacred falcons), viz., (i) the Gyrfalcon of Scandinavia, resembling in colouration the Blue Hawk (the Peregrine ) but of a much larger size; (ii) the Icelander from Iceland with a paler colouring and a decidedly longer body; and (iii) the Greenland Falcon with a predominantly pure white plumage. Among Indian Hawks the female Goshawk stands out as the most powerful and the largest of all the Falcons and Hawks taken together though the Peregrine and the Shaheen excel in dash and spced. The Peregrine and the Shaheen which head the Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219 list of Falcons in size do not exceed 18 or 19 inches in length whereas the Goshawk measures up to fully 24 inches. The "great northern" Falcons which come nearer in size and strength to the Goshawk were naturally looked upon by the author of श्यैनिक शास्त्र as foreign varietics of the Hawk and he accordingly placed them with the adult and young Goshawks in a separate group, the arf: i.e. the Hawks par excellence. वाजिनः पञ्चधा तेषां पृथक् लक्षणमुच्यते । कृशाकृतिर्बलाकाक्षः श्वेतः कृष्णकपदकः ।। भवत्यङ्गे तथोर्वोत्र सुखसाध्यः प्रकीर्तितः । यचक्रवाकसंस्थानञ्चकाङ्गः स च कीर्तित ॥ प्रलम्बः कृष्णसंस्थानः कङ्काभ: कालकः स्मृतः । चिराद्विश्रम्भमभ्येति सुरक्तोऽपि विरज्यते ॥ यः सर्वाङ्गे हिमप्रख्यो हंसवाजः स कथ्यते । स यत्र पूजितस्तिष्ठेत् कल्याणं तत्र जायते ॥ तं प्रयत्नेन रक्षेत्तु वाखेटादिषु योजयेत् । तस्य स्पर्धेन नश्यन्ति ज्वराचातुर्थिकादयः ॥ यस्याश्वत्थदलप्रख्या लेखा पुच्छच्छदादिषु । जायते वाजराजोऽसौ महारावणसंज्ञकः ।। 34 35 36 37 38 39 Tbid. p. 20. the The second line of verse 34 and verse 35 in the above passage refer to the slim looking (because of its very long tail), yellow-eyed or the powerful Goshawk 2 with a black and white spotted plumage (कपदक fr. कपर्द a spotted sea-shell; cf. कपदक for the pied Kingfisher, Art 41). It is the बलाकाङ्क्षवाज. The पत्रावाज is a young Goshawk with rufous lower parts (चक्रवाक संस्थान having a body resembling that of the Brahminy Duck). The third line refers to the case with which the Goshawk can be trained. The कालक वाज of verse 36 and the महारावण वाज of verses 39 and 40 appear to be the Gyrfalcon and the Icelander respectively. The former has an elonga- ted body (प्रलम्ब) and more of the bluish colour than in the Blue Hawk (the Peregrine) so that the descriptive phrase कृष्णसंस्थान also suits it betters. The हंसवाज of verses 37-38 is almost certainly the practically all-white Greenland Falcon. This was considered to be a great possession and as the risk of its loss could not be taken it was never to be used for hawking. No wonder, a superstition grew around it, viz., the mere touch of it cured 1. कडू in the context is the Grey Heron. 2. Cf the technical term "Red Hawk" for a Hawk of the first year in young plumage -Ency. Brit., 11th edition, vol. 10, p. 143a. 3. The three 'great northern' Falcons "are very difficult to back to the hood and to manage in the field". Ency. Brit, ibid, p. 145ff. This goes to support what is stated about the कालक बाज in verse 36, viz. that takes longer to train and even though well disposed towards its owner it often becomes wild. 220 Birds in Sanskrit Literature a patient of fevers. This would seem to be the white Falcon, "Taighoon", mentioned in the Memoirs of Jehangir (Tuzuk-i-Jehangiri, trans. by A. Rogers, Vol. 2, pp 10-11). It has not been possible for me to find out the Persian names of the other two 'great northern' Falcons. The smaller Sparrow Hawks have been described in the book under the names बासा, वेसर and fer. These and their males will be discussed in the section on Hawks. 5. The following lists of vernacular names of the different Hawks and Falcons current in North India and Bihar should prove very useful in the elucidation of the Sanskrit and other names given in paragraphs 2 and 31 above: बहरी, कुही, लगर, जरकटी, बाज, जुर्रा, बांसा, शाहीन, तुरमती, सचान चरखा, टोना, बेसरा --हिन्दी शब्दसागर' पाझि, सारिम, नगल, बेसर, वेसरि, ठरङ्गल, भोरङ्गल, जुराटी, छुरिकार, छुरिआरी, जाम्रोल, दुनिजा, गुरछली, चिचुकार, सइचान - वर्णरत्नाकर, p. 36. A comparative study of the Sanskrit and vernacular names supplemented by similar information from the F.B.I. (Birds), Vol. V. leads to the follow- ing identifications and they given here as a preliminary to a more detailed consideration of these birds in the sections that follow. 1. Hawks and Falcons in मानसोल्लास :- शालिव- the Peregrine Falcon; वहरी of श्ये. शा. वहरी, बिहिरी in Hindi; Bhyri in F.B.I.; सारिम in वर्णरत्नाकर जावल- the Shaheen F; जावलूम्, in Telugu, कुही, and शाहीन in H. per हि. प. सा. and F.B.L.; ही in श्ये शा; जाओल in वर्णरत्ना. लग्न:- the Luggar F; लगर, लग्घढ़ in H. and F.B.I. प्राजिक- the Goshawk; वाजि, बाजी, वाज, in Sansk; बाज in H. and वर्णरत्नाकर F.B.I.; पामि in -the Kestrel; ing; but if the root word is 'association' it may be the male of i.e. Luggar F. सञ्चाण - the Shikra Hawk; सचान, सिचान in H; सञ्चान of lexicons including M M. W.; सहचान in वर्णरत्नाकर वेसर- The Besra Hawk and its allies; बेसरा in H. and F.B.I.; बेसर, वेसरि in वर्णरत्नाकर (viii) गुध-शशाद of श्ये. शा. is a Hawk-Eagle : (ix) जवलकण्ठिक- जमलकंठी of F.B.I. is the Crested Goshawk : (x) तोणक (v.1. द्रोणक; कोणक is a w.r.) द्रोणक in कल्प; तुन्ना, टोना in H. & F.B.I.; टुनिजा in वर्णरत्ना०; is the male of सञ्चान, the Shikra 1. "जुरी, बाज, बांसे, कुही, लगर, लौने टोने, जरकटी, त्यौं सचान, सानबारे है"-from "चिड़ीमारिन" a book of Hindi Poetry by Raghurája, quoted in हि. श. सा. under'लगर', जरकटी and are names for the Merlin F. "बांसा बटेर लव औ सिचान धूती रु चिप्पिका चटक मान" -सूर, quoted in ibid under चिप्पिका. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds (xi) 221 and its v. 11 is a corrupt compound the original of which is very difficult to determine. The separates it into af and arage. It therefore seems probable that the first element is f which may refer either to the Merlin or the Cherrug Falcon. The second element might be for the Basha Sparrow Hawk or the Hobby Falcon. All the four birds were used for Hawking and it is highly probable that at least two of them were included in the compound which has been corrupted. 2) Falcons and Hawks in vifirma (i)-the same as in (1) above: (ii) शशाद-- “गृध in (1) (viii) above : (iii) चरक-चरख of हि. श. सा.; चरग of ibid; and is the Saker or Cherrug Falcon of F.B.I. (iv) g-the same as unfer in (1) (i) above: (v) लगर-लग्न in (I) (iii) above : (vi) verfer-is probably the Hobby as discussed later : (vii) सुरुमती - सुरमती in H; तुरुमती in F.B.I. (जरकटी of हि. श. सा. and जेलकट in F.B.I. are the same); it is the Merlin Falcon: in (1) (iv) above: in F.B.I. is the Asiatic or the Indian. (viii) the same as if (ix) re-te in H. and Sparrow Hawk : + (x)-the same as are in (1) (vii) above: (xi ) सिचान सञ्चान in (1) (vi) above : (xii)-(xv) is the male of Goshawk; e, the male of the Sparrow- Hawk; fe, the male of the Besra Sparrow-Hawk; and the male of the Shikra as in (1) (x) above : All the names noted in this paragraph and others will be considered later with the individual Falcons and Hawks in sub-sections II and III of this section. II. FALCONS 1. This sub-section deals with the Sanskrit nomenclature of Falcons which, for their size, constitute a most remarkable group of birds. Bold and predacious by nature they possess an extraordinary keenness of vision, great strength, speed, and above all persistence. As trained birds they are loyal and greatly attached to their master whose voice and person they can recognize from a great distance and often utter a call of recogni- tion long before returning to the master's fist. The best representatives of the group are the Peregrine and the Shaheen Falcons and they must be given precedence over others in the discussion that follows. 2. The Peregrine or the Blue Hawk (19") is the Falcon par excellence and for this reason is simply known as 'Falcon' amongst British falconers. "For its size it is perhaps the most powerful bird of prey that flies, and 222 Birds in Sanskrit Literature its courage is as great as its power". It is bluish grey above and white below with brown or black spots (bars in old birds) on the lower breast and abdomen. It is the नीलच्छद श्येन as defined in the कल्पद्रकोश : नीलच्छदस्तु करणो लम्बपर्णो रणप्रियः Where (having a blue cover) is descriptive of the colour of the upper plumage, of its perfect aptitude for training and its expert performance, and the other adjectives refer to its long wings and love of the chase. चरकसंहिता mentions it as the धूमीका (v.l. धूमिका or धूमाका? M. W.) in reference to its bluish or foggy colour. In Hindi it is known as a (v.l. बिहिरी) 1 which appears as बहरी in the श्यैनिक शास्त्र, 4.20. Hindi बहरी or बिहिरी may be from far-f, far-fe or fa- (one that carries away or kills birds), or again from बि-हरि (वीनां वीषु वा हरिरिव, a lion among birds; cf. पक्षिसिह for गरुड, the Golden Eagle). eft (a lion) is the name of one of the descendants of e, in the Mahabharata list where the name is comparable with tiger) and gur (à panther) for the Pelican (Art. 71) and is very appro- priate for the bold and fearless Peregrine. farfe is again on a par with (a (a lion-sparrow, hence a comparatively small but very courageous bird of prey): मृगेन्द्रचटको घातिपक्षी ग्राहकमारको हारावली हरि or fबहरि would thus seem to account for Hindi बहरी or बिहिरी for this Falcon. 3. In the wild state it takes both land and water-birds from a Lark to a Duck to which last it is very partial. If by any chance it has not succeeded in securing its staple diet in the course of the day it will attack a Crow-colony late in the evening. This very important trait of the Falcon had happily been noted by the ancient Indians and now helps us to identify it with the form of Vedic literature : क्षिप्रश्येनाभिपन्नानां वायसानामिव स्वनः बभूव पाण्डवेयानां भृशं विद्रवतां स्वनः || M. Bh. 7.26,64. The terrific speed of this bird during a 'stoop' has been estimated as high as 150 miles per hour which, despite some exaggeration, means that no bird can escape its devastating attack and it is in recognition of this fact that the ancients gave it the distinctive name of fe. Now if the 'fast bird', a, of RV. 10.91.2 is the same as the fex I would suggest that the expression in the verse has the same meaning as the word 1. "बिहिरी कहूं निबहत सुनौ लगर झगर हित बेस" quoted under 'बेसरा' in हि. श. सा. 2. can also be the Shaheen Falcon, a species closely allied to the Peregrine and almost as good for purposes of hawking. Being a resident bird it is preferred by Indian falconers. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 223 बंसु (वनेषु नीडकाष्ठोपरि ) in RV. 9.57.31 as interpreted by me in Section A viz., wooden poles or posts in a house used as perches for tame Falcons. in the sense of 'wood' (timber) i.e. for things made of wood, e.g. a cart (fa fe) has been used in the Rgveda (2.14.9; 3.1,13; 10.132.7; etc.) and there is no very great improbability against how I pro- pose to interpret RV. 10.91.22. The second are of the verse ('à a firford fe") compares af, the welcome guest, with the Falcon as a valued pet and guest of every tribe. It may be noted that when plants and trees. have been directly mentioned as the food and source of af in verses 5-7 of the hymn, and particularly when any bird may be said to have its home in a tree there would seem to be no point in particularising the art. On the other hand the parallel between the glorious for and the equally glorious eft as honoured guests makes an excellent simile. When the first, third and the fourth Pädas refer to the domestic fire as a guest the second Pada also should naturally refer to the bird as another guest in the house. 4. At present the Peregrine is a winter visitor in India and is said to breed throughout Northern Asia but it is quite probable that in times long past it bred in the Himalayas as well and was more plentiful in the country than now. Even now it is found throughout the country in the cold season but in former times when the country had a far greater number of marshes and jheels bird-life of all kinds, serving as food for birds of prey, was also very much more plentiful than now, and conse- quently the raptores also must have been far more numerous then. The 1. स ममूं जान आयुभिरिभो राजेव सुव्रतः श्येनो न वंसु षीदति ॥ Trans: "He, the object of pious observances, cleansed by the priests, fearless as a king, sits on the waters like a hawk."-per Wilson, following Sayana's rendering. "He, when the people deck him like a docile king of elephants, sits as a falcon in the wood."Griffith. 2. स दर्शतश्रीरतिषियूँ हेगृहे वनेवने शिश्रिये तस्ववोरिव । जनंजनं जन्यो नाति मन्यते विश आ क्षेति विश्यो विशंविशम् ॥ Trans: "Of manifest glory, he resorts as a guest to every house (of his worshippers) to every forest; friendly to man, like one repairing to all men, he disregards them not; kind to all, he dwells amongst all men," (he presides over every one).-Wilson. """वनेवने rafa ""he lurks in every forest like a robber, "--per Langlois, vide Wilson's notes. "He, excellent in glory, guest in every house, finds like a swift-winged bird a home in every tree. Benevolent to men, he scorns no living man: Friend to the tribes of men he dwells with every tribe." "Swift-winged bird': or, bird of prey. 'Hunter' according to Ludwig-F.N.-Griffith. Cf. "बने निपूतं बने उन्नयध्वम् " a wooden चमस RV. 2.14.9. ( सोम ) purified in a wooden vessel lift it up in Sayana does not render a as a bird and the idea of a Hawk or Falcon sitting on the water is impossible. The rendering as a fast bird or better still, as 'a bird of prey 'suits best. That af for the avau is in shape of a bird of prey supports the rendering of art by Griffith, and as 'a fast flying bird' in the Vedic Index. Both 'robber' and "hunter' are totally inappropriate for a deity like af. 224 Birds in Sanskrit Literature passage from we considered in para, 7 below also supports the breeding of the Peregrine in the outer Himalayas about two thousand years ago. 5. An experienced old Peregrine knows well how to deliver its attack on a particular quarry. If it is a Heron, the Falcon, after tearing open the back of the bird with its hind claw, would contract its claws and lay hold of the bird's neck so as to avoid being struck by its sharp and power- ful bill, but if the quarry happens to be the Demoiselle Crane, it keeps well on its back and escapes a blow from the sharp, curved inner claw of the Crane which often inflicts a severe wound. This cleverness on the part of the Falcon would justify the name (clever, wise) for it as a descend- ant of Garuda in the Mahabharata list. The following verses in praise of a trained Falcon should prove interesting : तज्ज्ञैः सुशिक्षिताः श्येना: भवन्त्यानन्ददायिनः | सम्यक् सुशिक्षितानां तु श्येनानां मरुतामिव । नाकार्यं विद्यते किश्चिन्नासाध्यं योग्यवस्तुषु ॥ श्यैनिक शास्त्र, 5.40 Ibid 6.8. The following verses descriptive of sport with a Peregrine (ag) will be appreciated. Here and as the birds flown at are flights of Grey Herons and Black Ibises respectively : अतिदूरगतानां नु कङ्कदात्यूहपक्षिणाम् । लक्ष्ये मोको बर्या हि जनयत्यद्भुतं रसम् ॥ यत्न वेगानिलस्वानभीषिताः खात्पतन्ति च । छिन्त्रपक्षनगाकाराः खगास्तस्मात् किमद्भुतम् ॥ 1. M Bh. 5.101.9-15. ये. शा. 6.37-38. The second verse refers to the first earthward flight of the birds frightened by the loud swish of the wings of the Falcon during a stoop from above. If the quarry is already at a good height its chance of escape from the marauder is "to keep above the enemy, and it often happens, there- fore, that both birds may fly so high as to disappear entirely. Eventually, however, the-relentless pursuer will rise above his victim, and then in a few moments will come the savage and certain downward plunge, and the clutch of the merciless talons which means death in mid air." This method of escape is often attempted though not with much chance of success by large birds like the Black Ibis and Cranes, which incidentally explains the term खेगमन for the कालकण्ठ दात्यूह (M. W. and श. कल्प. ) i.e, the Black Ibis (Art 80), for when not in danger it does not ordinarily fly very high. (sky-going) for the Ibis, therefore, owes its origin to the practice of falconry. 225 6. Returning to the name for it is to be noted that the Peregrine has also been described as the little Golden Eagle', सुपर्णक (सुपर्ण with अल्पायें कन्) for like the Eagle it has both courage and speed and like him again it breeds on inaccessible cliffs. As against the briefsynonymy, "fax: :" in वैजयन्ती कोश the definition given by सुरेश्वराचार्य in his बार्तिक on the गृहयारण्यक is more specific in describing this small and yet powerful bird (a mere 19 in length compared with 36" to 40 of the massive Golden Eagle) though he calls it a gf by way of compliment : क्षिप्रश्येनः सुपर्णस्तु बलवानल्पविग्रह:--वार्तिक on 4.3.160. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds in the context must evidently be taken as synonymous with the more correct g in the t, and it follows that the interpretation of or गरुड as the शिप्रश्येन in the शाङ्करभाष्य on बृहदारण्यक, 4.3.19 and by Sāyana else where is not to be taken too literally but in the sense of a small (referung) bird possessing the excellent flight and speed of the true gi. The high esteem in which this Falcon was held may be judged from the fact that no other bird, not even the proper, has been deified and considered worthy of an individual offering at the at which a Quail is assigned to it-"क्षिप्रश्येनाय बतिका", वाज. संहिता, 24.30. 7. The female Peregrine, again, would seem to be the bird of the way, where she is said to give birth to a fer (fast Falcon). According to a statement in the gr a man desirous of a brave son should not join his wife at meal-time but allow her to eat by herself, and it is in support of this proposition that the example of the wearer bird doing so and begetting the fast and courageous ferx is cited: जायाया अन्ते नाश्नीयाद् वीर्यवान् हास्माज्जायते वीर्यवन्तमुह सा जनयति यस्या अन्ते नाश्नाति । तदेतदेव व्रतं राजन्यबन्धवो मनुष्याणामनुतमाङ्गो- पायन्ति तस्मादुतेषु वीर्यवाञ्जायतेऽमृतवाका वयसां सा क्षिप्रश्येनजनयति..... शत. ब्रा., 10.5.2.9 10. Sayana comments on the above as follows: वयसां पक्षिणां मध्ये अमृतवाका नाम पक्षिजातिः एतद्व्रतम् गोपायति अतः सा क्षिप्रम् शीघ्रगामिनम् श्येनं नाम पक्षिणम् जनयति । Now most of the Eagles and only two among the Falcons, the Luggar and the Merlin, are known to go about and hunt in pairs and share the spoils in common, but the Peregrines, male and female, hunt independently a rule and each kills and eats its own prey. Taken young, the Peregrine is casily the best of all the hawking birds. A trained bird is very much devoted to and shows great affection for its keeper, and during a hunt when the bird is returning to its master from high up in the air it utters a 1. This passage shows a close observation of the habits of falcons in nature which in turn lends strong support to the proposition that the ancient Vedic Aryans practised falconry. 226 Birds in Sanskrit Literature clear drawn out plaintive cry as a call of recognition (Smythies). This call is the agaar (sweet voice) of the bird so cheering and welcome to its keeper. Stuart Baker also records his personal experience regarding a pair of Serpent Eagles kept by him. They would recognize their master from high up when they were still invisible to the human eye, and come down with their screaming calls and actually alight on his shoulder (see also the article on Falconry in Ency. Brit. 11th and 14th editions). The mean- ing of aar as explained above is greatly strengthened by the accept- ed sense of the term agrare for the welcome sound of the wheels of a wagon returning home laden with the barley crop in wa. ., 5.4.5.22 (see also Eggling's trans. in the S.B.E. series). That the voice. of such a bird is appreciated elsewhere may be seen in names like the "Singing Hawk" or "Chanting Falcon" for an African bird. Finally, like the name (wise or clever), the name ger of the MBh. list corres- ponds to and may well refer to this Falcon. that 8. The Shaheen Falcon (18"), a very close relative of the preceding, is the best indigenous and breeding bird of India. Its breeding places on the cliffs in different parts of the country have been known to the people from time immemorial (Jerdon). It is a darker bird than the Peregrine, the head being almost black, and the under parts more rufous. The defini- tion of the नीलच्छद श्येन quoted from कल्पद्रुकोण in support of the Peregrine would seem to be equally applicable to it. In a state of nature it preys upon a variety of game birds including Pigeons and Quails, but it is partial to Paroquets. The Peregrine, as we have seen, prefers water-birds but the most important difference between the habits of the two when the hungry Peregrine wends its way to a Crow-colony in the evening the Shaheen turns to the bats in similar circumstances. Despite the admit- ted superiority of the former the Indian falconers have always shown a preference for the latter (Shaheen) and they train it for what is known as the "standing gait" and is not slipped from the hand like the Peregrine i.e. when released it keeps circling high in the air over its master and party, and as the game is started it makes its stoop with amazing speed, faster than an arrow, which is a very sure and deadly way of hunting. 9. It is known as in Hindi and (Jowalum? in F.B.I. due to a phonetic error perhaps, and there are many such errors in recording the Indian names of birds) in Telugu. कुही may be from (i) कुहू-विस्मापने, because when domestic Pigeons are flown high for their daily exercise it frequently appears suddenly over them to the great consternation of the Pigeon-fancier, or (ii) by direct substitution of Sansk. g (fog) as a synonym for धूमीका (v.l. धूमिका) : धूमिका स्यान्नभोरेणुपर्यायाऽपि कुहीति च – कल्पद्रुकोश. If, as is more probable, the second explanation of the name is correct, it would be purely a Sansk. name, indicative of the colour or the upper plumage of the Shaheen like the terms नीलच्छद and घूमीका. The name कपोत of Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 227 the MBh. list may well refer to it after its small size, bluish colour, and the habit of killing Pigeons. Like its elder cousin, the Peregrine, it was trained to kill a variety of birds including even such large ones as the Sarus and other Cranes: कुह्या मोक: सारसेऽथ क्रौञ्चे रौद्ररसावहः सपक्षयोः पर्वतयोरिव यताउनुधावनम् ॥ निपत्य नखराक्षेप करकेकारकूजितम् परावृत्योग्रचञ्च्या च प्रहारो रौद्रसङ्गरः ॥ श्ये. शा. 6.35-36 The reference to the Crane's counter-attack with its bill is interesting. 10. The Laggar (19") is one of the commonest Falcons of India frequenting dry open country and areas adjoining cultivation. Dark to is not difficult of grey brown above and predominantly white below identification in the field specially as pairs are seen together. An important feature about the bird is that nearly always it hunts in pairs. English 'Laggar' is derived from the Hindi and are for the female Falcon. The male goes l the name of झगर in Hindi from झकटकं झगड़ा dispute, because a pair when attacking a quarry in co-ordination appear to be carrying on a dispute as it were. The लग्न and लङ्गण of मानसोल्लास should be the female and male respectively of this bird as Hindi and Sansk. are from root to adhere, and, if not the same as , may be a South-Indian variant of used for the male Falcon. The second Hindi name and even at may also have something to do with Vedic (,,? speedy, hence a Falcon Vedic Index, where at, swift is suggested as an alternative) -रघट लघट लग्पड़ लगढ़-लगर; Telugu लगढ़ for this Falcon also points in the direction of -. Sansk. ere, for a handy missile, seems to be an allied word. 4 is one of the bird-names in the following verse : या सुपर्णा आङ्गिरसीदिव्या या रघटो विदुः । वयांसि हंसा या विदुर्याश्च सर्वे पतविणः ॥ AV. 8.7.24. Derived as suggested above the name is comparable with fas descriptive of the quick action of a warrior and a Falcon : शैनेयः श्येनवत् संख्ये व्यचरल्लघुविक्रमः । -MBh. 7.120.36. We thus have and probably as Sanskrit names for this Falcon The Luggar and his mate usually hunt together with complete coopera- tion between them as already stated, and the following simile pictured after a pair of Falcons or Eagles (t) acting together against a common objective is fully reminiscent of the behaviour of a pair of these Falcons or some Eagle : 1. कलहं झकटर्क-com. on यशस्तिलकचम्पू, p. 357. 2. Per Bloomfield in Hymns of the Atharvaveda, p. 43. 228 Birds in Sanskrit Literature अजिराधिराजो श्येनौ सम्पातिनाविव आज्यं पुतन्योपहतां यो न कक्षाभ्यघायति ॥ AV. 7.70.3. 11. The Saker (Arabic, al-saqr) or the Cherrug Falcon (22") has a whitish head and brown upper parts. The lower parts are white often marked with brown drops. The bill is pearl or ivory white. It is a desert form frequenting open lands, deserts and wide uncultivated tracts. Next to the Peregrine it is a very fast and courageous bird and was formerly trained to capture gazelles, fawns, hares, Cranes, Bustards, etc. In nature, however, it lives on small mammals and principally on lizards. It is known as w or in Hindi, and ' or in Persian while . . mentions it by its Hindi name of and refers to its frightful attack and perseverance when let go after a fawn : हारिणं शिशुमादाय सान्त्राण्यङ्गानि भक्षयन् अनिवार्यों हि बीभत्सं चरखो जनयत्यलम् ॥ 6.39. The Hyena is also or in Hindi and names are from Sansk. or. The e in Prakrit, and these mentions are as a bird of prey and defines it as मणितुण्ड ("मणितुण्डो तरक्षक:") where मणि means 'a pearl' and g'a beak' so that the white-billed (er with or to fill the metre) is no other than the Cherrug Falcon which alone has a white bill. चरेल्लग (fr. चरक a wanderer ) is a kind of bird in अर्धमागधी and probably corresponds Hindi or for this Falcon. (fr. ) again in the same dialect, is defined as a class of mendicants who obtain their food by violent means. In Persian, too, 'charkh' not only means this Falcon but also a 'faqeer' or mendicant who goes out on his rounds night. Evidently, therefore, Ardhamagadhi , Hindior and Persian 'charkh' are identical and have their root in Sansk. or which means (i) the hyena which prowls for prey at night and (ii) this Falcon which secures its food by violent means. is also a kind of bird in Prakrit where is synonymous with for which means rock-crystal, alum, and camphor which are all of a white colour. It is thus a bird with a white bill and should refer to the Falcon under discussion. 12. The late Shri C.V. Vaidya, author of Mahabharata, A Criticism in English, contributed a voluminous epilogue in Marathi to a nine- volume translation of Mahabharata in Marathi published by G.V. Chip- lunkar and Co., Poona, the epilogue, named are being the tenth volume of the translation. This 3r is based upon a very close, detailed and systematic study of the great Epic. According to Vaidya it was Souti who converted the original 'Bharata' into present 'Mahabharata' about the second century B.C. by incorporating into it a very great amount of floating tradition, stories, moral teaching, and Brahmanical religious dis- courses and doctrines with a view to strengthen and consolidate the ant or Brahmanical religion against the persistent onslaughts cal Jainism and Buddhism on it. In the process of augmentation of the the hereti- Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds Epic he, says Vaidya, inserted a large number of or enigmatic verses throughout the body of the work, each chapter having its share of a few such verses (eg, ch. 1, pp. 37-40). The following verse from the appears to be of the type. I have picked it out just to see if the words मूग, शृगाल, and तरक्षु have been used in their usual meanings or in a कूट sense for particular birds, a being the fast-flying Laggar Falcon. Here is the verse: मृगाः शृगालाः शितिकण्ठाश्च काका गृधा बकाव तरक्षवश्च । सुवर्णपत्राच पतन्ति पश्चाद् दृष्ट्वा रथं श्वेतयप्रयुक्तम् ॥ 229 MBh. 5.48.104-5. The commentators have taken the terms मृगाः शृगाला and तरक्षवः to mean 'deer', 'jackals' and 'hyenas' respectively, and fafar, Peacocks. These interpretations, barring the 'deer' do not suit the context at all.¹ Arjuna, the great warrior, makes in this verse a proud statement regarding the extra-ordinary speed of his war-chariot drawn by a pair of white horses, and bearing this in mind one must admit that the poor hyena with his limping gait or run is indeed no match for any much less a really fast horse. The very idea of a horse outstripping a hyena in a race is most incongruous and the comparison is simply ridiculous. The jackal, though a fast runner, is too mean a creature for Arjuna's boast. In the Rgveda the speed of horses has been compared with that of the wind and in litera- ture with that of the Golden Eagle", the fastest of the tribe. The Peacock, again, mostly a ground bird with a heavy and laboured flight. It is therefore submitted that all the names in the above verse represent large and fast-flying birds as suggested below: अथ श्येना मृगाश्चैव कङ्का गृध्रास्तथाऽपरे । तुण्ड: शवान् विनिष्कृष्य भक्षयन्ति ततस्ततः । fr., one looking around for food; 'a large bird' in RV. ded Vulture 1.182.7; 10.136.6 (M.W.). It is probably either the I (w) or Pallas's Fishing Eagle (g), more probably the latter. Both, like the other birds of prey have to search for food from the air and both are carrion eaters and fast fliers. as a carrion bird. occurs in the हरिवंश : 3.122.20 is thus different from ar, Eagles, g, the Adjutants or Pallas's Eagles, and m, the common Vultures (excluding the Bearded Vulture which despite its name is often regarded as a different bird). If is taken for the Adjutant Stork, a great carrion eater, the two that would 1. Cf. नवाजिनं वाजिना हासयन्ति न गर्दभं पुरो अश्याप्रयन्ति । RV. 3.53.31 2. The Vedic horse fut is compared to an impetuous Eagle in RV 38.2.40; 40.3, etc. Compare also expressions like, "हयाः सुपर्णेन समानवेगा:" in कर्णभारम् of भास, 13. Birds in Sanskrit Literature be left for identification with would be either the Bearded Vulture or Pallas's Fishing Eagle.* 230 शृंगाल—the same as गोमायु. Both these names, like कोष्टा, फेरव, घोरवासन, etc. for the jackal, refer to his extreme noisiness. and should be from root to blow violently' (M.W.) and hence to make a noise. g is probably a Fox who is of a solitary habit and utters a single cry at time (एक: सूक एक पद: सुगाल: per com. on हिरण्यकेशी श्रौतसून, 24.7.23) but सूक' in 'एक्सक' should mean cry or call and the compound ges should be rendered as an animal that utters a single cry at a time. This will help to distinguish , the jackal, from एकस्क, the fox in the श्रौत text गोमायु as a homonym may be explained as (i) गवि भूमो मिमाति मायुः, one that makes a noise on the ground, and hence the jackal; and (ii) af arg, one that is noisy in the sky or air, and therefore a noisy bird. sg as a bird is thus the same as tary in the second sense. Now try is listed as a particular bird in at page 397 with other birds frequenting a dry region (जाङ्गल देश), while जम्बुक (जम्बु in the printed text is an error), the jackal, is also mentioned in the same passage as one of the animals found in the same zone. That the term rg is appli- cable to a noisy bird like the Peacock, which has a loud call, is also clear from the following: सृगालोऽपि मयूर उच्यते – "मयुः मयूरो गोमायुः सुगालचेति शब्दितः” इतिनामरत्नमालावचनात् । विश्वरूपटीका on याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृति, प्रायश्चित्ताध्याय, Verse 266 (Trivandram ed.). The next question is what particular bird is this गोमायु of पालकाप्य or शृगाल of the Mahabharata ? That it is a noisy bird is clear enough, and when consider other characteristic names for the jackal indicative of his other habits, e.g. (a cheat) and (carrion eater) we would be justi- fied in expecting similar qualities in the bird as well. Now all these traits are present in the Tawny Eagle in the fullest measure, for he is not only very noisy on the wing but also eats carrion and is always eager to cheat other birds of prey of their booty. He is a fast bird too (see para. 8 iv Sec. A of this Article). Hardly any other fast-flying bird fulfills all the conditions that the name demands. Considering everything

• This Eagle prefers to build its large nest, lined with twigs and green leaves, on

solitary cotton trees (Bombax malabaricum) which stand as landmarks in an Indian river-bed. During floods the tree is naturally surrounded by water on all sides. The picture of Asvins securing you holding on to such a tree in the midst of a flood like a large bird () carrying twigs & leaves in RV.1.182. 7 would seem to be based on the habits of this Eagle. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds therefore try and should be the Tawny Eagle. There are several other animal-names as well that are shared by birds, e.g., gors and (Pelican), w (Tree-Pie), we (Black Eagle), (Cherrug Falcon), etc. 231 fufa fr. fafe 'black' and white', and the word interpreted in both the senses should mean birds with black as well as with white necks, and, looking round for large sized birds with great wing-power, the Black-necked and the White-necked Storks at once present themselves, and both these must be included for purposes of the verse. The Black-necked Stork is mentioned elsewhere in the Epic as the 'fearful black-necked and red-legged bird'-"gonfrate- शकुना रक्तपादा भयानका:" MBh. 5.143.25. The शितिकण्ठाः (note the plural) are therefore these big Storks and not the Peacocks. -the Adjutant Stork; cf. the frequent use of the term for this bird, a fast flier that soars high with Vultures. -the Cherrug Falcon. g-the same as Frier, the Golden Eagle, the fastest of all others in the verse. It will be noticed that ga is placed the last with an emphatic and the sense is that even the Golden Eagles fall behind. my chariot'. The •significance of the principal sentence, (एते पक्षिण:) रथं दृष्ट्वा पश्चात्पतन्ति, is that these birds with great power of wing at the very sight of Arjuna's fast- moving chariot fall back of their own accord since they know that they cannot compete with it, much less outstrip it, even if they tried their best. It is an excellent poetic thought based upon the indifference of the birds of the sky to what does not concern them below. 13. The Indian Hobby is a small Falcon (11.5"), black above and light ferrugineous below. The European species, known as the Hobby, is slightly larger and has the lower parts white. It is very fast and active on the wing and of rather crepuscular habits. Teraferer is one of the "brown- eyed" Falcons in the v. . 4.21. Harprasad Shastri translates the name as "having short wings" but does not identify the bird. The wings of the Hobby, like those of other Falcons, are of course long and it cannot be described as a short-winged bird. Formerly it was trained for hawking small birds like the Hoopoes, King-crows, Larks, etc., and writing about its performance on the wing, H.C. Donald says that its wonderful evolu- tions in the air cannot help attracting attention and if watched for a few seconds it will be seen to constantly change direction and turn and twist

• The three Eagles, two of whom are calling loudly (1), in the higher regions,

mentioned in the following verse should be the Tawny Eagles under discussion:- "वयः सुपर्णा उपरस्य माधू नाकस्य पृष्ठे अघि विष्टपि श्रिताः । स्वर्गा लोका अमृतेन विष्ठा इषमूर्ज यजमानाय दुह्लाम् ।। AV.18.4.4. 232 Birds in Sanskrit Literature in the air in a most amazing way in pursuit of insects, on which it mostly preys. It does not usually make its appearance till late in the afternoon and may be seen circling, stooping, rising vertically and playing extra- ordinary tricks in the air, some time after all diurnal birds have gone to rest (J.B.N.H.S.XXxvn). It therefore seems to me that the beautiful name पक्षकलिका (पक्षकलावती) should be rendered as a small Falcon which exhibits , the art of flying, in a variety of ways. That the term f is also related to (art) is clear from the technical meaning of f as an artistic style of composition : कला नाम भवेत्तालनियता पदसन्ततिः । कलाभिः कलिका प्रोक्ता तद्भेदाः षट् समीरिताः ॥ श. कल्प. under कलिका Moreover, the Hobby would be the only "brown-eyed" Falcon trained for Hawking that would seem to have been left out by the author of .. if terfere is some other unkown Falcon. The probability of its being the Hobby is therefore of the highest degree. 14. It is very active early in the morning and again late in the even- ing, and thus seems to be the fire (staying till late in the evening, or absenting oneself during the day) of the MBh. list; cf. far as an adnoun for a particular Heron ing. See also Art. 82. 15. The Merlin occurs in two forms in North India: the Red-headed Merlin (14") of the Himalayas and the North Asian Merlin (12") with a whitish head. Both are bluish grey above and white, barred or streaked with black, below with a rufous tinge in the smaller variety. The old opinion giving the palm to the Merlin for courage and speed is no longer held and it is now definitely known to be slower than the Peregrine and even the Hobby. Nevertheless its "flight is very swift and graceful...and the bird stoops at its quarry with wonderful skill and speed, a most finished performer" (Whistler). It was trained to capture Mainas, Quails, Rollers, etc. and sometimes also to work in pairs. Its Hindi name gat ( fr. वुड् to be speedy) should be the same as the वेगी of कल्पद्रुकोश - वेगी खगान्तकः क्रूरः एतद्भेदा अनेकशः । argar of the MBh. list is a name comparable with it. The . ., however, contents itself with the Hindi name तुरुमती. 16. The European as well as the Himalayan Kestrel (14") are winter visitors to North India. The head is ashy-grey and the upper parts brick- red with black arrow-shaped black spots while the lower parts are of a vinous colour. The Himalayan species is darker. Its Hindi name, #fear ( खदिर+मृत्तिका, reddish-brown) in the North and नारजी, (Persian 'nār'-fiery ) in the South of India are after its body-colour. It is a plains-bird, and while beating over grass lands it is often seen "hovering with a quick motion of the wings above a spot where it has seen or suspects it has seen its prey, on which it drops quietly." This habitual hovering is the most characteristic feature of the Kestrel to which it owes its popular Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 233 English name of 'Windhover'. "When watching for food from a perch the head is incessantly turning and bobbing" (Smythies). From its hovering habit it should be the रङ्गण* (रङ्ग नृत्यम्) of कल्पद्रुकोश; from its reddish colour, the (fire), from its habit of turning its head in different direc- tions the fear, and from the quick fanning movements of wings the frie (winking of the eyelids) of the MBh. list. It may be stated here that out of a total of 47 names in the list as many as ten refer to the Golden Eagle and four or five each to some of the commoner birds of prey found in North India. They are mostly in the nature of descriptive epithets apparently invented by alfa who gave the Epic its final comprehen- sive and bulky form. No kite or Falcon lays such deep red eggs as the Kestrel and the adnoun लोहाण्डी or full name लोहाण्डी शकुनि of ग. महोदधि should also belong to it: लोह इवाण्डमस्याः लोहाण्डी नाम शकुनिः । Commentary on verse 44. 17. The call of the Kestrel is a shrill scream, kee, kee, kee, and there- fore good enough for purposes of augury. The Prakrit work, garrafe mentions a bird of augury by the name of आगास जोइणी (Sk. आकाश योगिनी) : "आगासजोइणीए निसुओो सद्दो वि वाम पासम्मि" p. 185, verse 202 The particular bird it is must be determined with reference to the mean- ing of the name itself, for the Dictionaries explain it merely as a kind of bird (farfa:). The name literally means 'a fairy or female magician of the sky, and योगिनी taken by itself may well be from योग defined as "चित्तवृत्ति- निरोधः", ध्यान, and बपुः स्थैर्यम् (अमर, मेदिनी, etc.). In its habit of hovering at a point high up in the air longer than any other bird and of close concentra- tion upon a possible quarry below, the Kestrel may indeed be said to be a magician of the sky or to exhibit atf power, and the charming name of आकाश योगिनी may well belong to it (cf. खकामिनी for the Brahminy Kite in the next Section). 18. Two other probable names for the Kestrel appear to be f and of the following synonymy which also includes two names for the Common Kite: चिरम्भणस्तु चिल्ल: स्यात् खभ्रान्तिः कण्ठनीडकः । –त्रिकाण्डशेष Annotators take all the four names for the Kite and they may be right but it must be remembered that the fa purports to give us a supplement to the art, i.e. additional synonyms for (i) objects already named there and (ii) objects not mentioned at all, and naturally new names falling within the first category could not be numerous. is therefore highly

• If रङ्गण is the sune as लङ्गण of मानसोल्लास the name would indicate the

Laggar Falcon and not the Kestrel-see para. 10 infra. 234 Birds in Sanskrit Literature probable that the first quarter of the above half verse gives only for (calling for long) as an additional name for fre (the Kite) and the second refers to a Kite-like bird not mentioned by a, viz. the Kestrel. That annotators have differed among themselves along the above lines (i.e. in the way I do) is proved by the remarks of me at several places in his अमरविवेक commentary on the अमरकोश (Bombay, 1907). 19. The Pied Kingfisher "flies over water at a height of some ten or twenty feet above the surface, and suddenly, catching sight of a shoal of fish below, checks itself dead in mid-air and hovers with the wings vibrating rapidly and the bill pointing perpendicularly downwards, as if taking aim" (Whistler). This action of the bird has been described in e as below: “कपदिकः । आकाशे सुचिरं भ्रान्त्वा जले पतति लोष्टवत्" ॥ The point to be noted is the use of a derivative of root vr to describe the act of hovering in the air. I therefore suggest that af (hovering in the sky; घ्रान्ति: अनवस्थितिः हेमचन्द्र and विश्व; quivering M.W.; cf. Windhover) is the Kestrel. Salim Ali also speaking of the hovering flight of certain Indian birds remarks that the Kestrel and the Pied King-fisher are the foremost exponents of it-The Book of Indian Birds, 4th edn., page 268. The Brahminy Kite which flies in circles like the Common Kite is named eft (loving the sky) which is certainly different from afas explained above. Turning to it I fail to see how this term can apply to a Kite unless it is translated as a bird that cries or calls at the nest' which how- ever is a trait common to all the birds of the family. On the other hand the term may very appropriately mean- "कण्ठे पर्वतकण्ठे नीडं करोति योऽसौ"2 i.c. a bird that builds its nest in rocky cliffs, and the Kestrel regularly does so. "The eyrie" of a Kestrel "is in our area (India) almost invariably in holes and rocky ledges of cliffs" (Whistler). It is submitted therefore that the very striking peculiarity of our bird has won for it several interesting and aptly suggestive names. 20. The Himalayan Red-legged Falconet (7"), the 'White-naped Pigmy Falcon' of Jerdon is a mere midget amongst Falcons, and yet it is a bold little bird, the carriage and the wonderful eye of the fiercest Eagle, and preys in the wild state upon small birds and at times those bigger than itself. It can also be trained for hawking as we have it from Jerdon that it was so used by the Raja of Rangpur (Assam) and F.B.I., —-page 73; regarding the two चत्वारोऽपि पर्याया 1. Referring to 16 synonyms for गृह, and 4 for वास be says विशतिर्नामानि गृहस्येत्यन्ये - सूतिकागृहम्"we have यवानिका" we have यवानी द्वयस्य वासगृहमरिष्टं इत्यन्ये -p. synonymics, "गर्भागारं "अजमोदा तूग्रगन्धा ब्रह्मदर्भा 74; on द्वे द्वे नामनी इत्यपि मतम्- . 112.; again we have at p. 204 चत्वारि धूल्या, द्वे पिष्टस्य षडपि

and so on in several other synonymies.

2. Substituted for "कण्ठे प्रासादवृक्षादीनां शिरोभागे नोडमस्य" given as an alternative explanation of कण्ठनीडक in श. कल्प.; cf. also कुण्डकीट-फुण्डे नरककुण्डे कीट इव-ibid. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 235 first edition, also records a similar report. It is known as in Hindi (fr. Sansk. fe closed fist) according to Jerdon. This name not only emphasizes its small size but probably also the fact that when trained for hawking it was held in the fist and tossed like a stone towards the intended quarry. This style of throwing a Falcon is adopted with the Shikra as well and is described as fets in . ., 6.29. It is therefore highly probable that this Falconet was known as मुष्टि or मुष्टिक in Sanskrit as well. वामन as a descendant of Garuda in the MBh. list should refer to members of the Falconet (Microhierax) group. 21. It is recorded in F.B.I., second edition, about the Eastern Red- legged Falcon (12") that it is a migratory bird and moves south in vast flocks from its breeding grounds in Siberia and Mangolia in winter. One of their routes passes through Cachar in Assam and as they roost in large. numbers on the bamboos for the night the Hill Tribes manage to catch them for food and also for sale. The wax also prescribes the flesh of a certain type of small Falcon, श्येनक (ह्रस्व: श्येनः श्येनक:) for a patient suffering from piles in अर्शोऽधिकार, 2.5.121. It would thus appear that the term श्येनक stands for the Red-legged Falconet of North India as the counterpart of the small Siberian Falcon eaten by the Hill Tribes of Assam. III. HAWKS Hawks वाजि-पक्षिण: Genus Astur Goshawk Crested Shikras Goshawks चुलाङ्क सञ्चान याजि aufer बाज, वाजी, प्राजिक, The Crested Goshawk माणिक or अघम वेसर Northern Crested Goshawk मध्यमवेसर, grereenfuser Genus Accipiter (i) Asiatic & Indian for Sparrow Hawks | औरङ्गन,, (ii) Southern Besra Sp-Hawk... शुद्ध वेसर (iii) North Besra Sp. Hawk- घावन वाजि (iv) Japanese, Pale Eastern, Indo-Chinese fa Sp. Hawks anfer Note- The Shikras and Hawks of genus Accipiter are the कुलिङ्गका: of चरक- erfgar. 1. All Indian Hawks have been designed by nature on a more or less the same pattern and their body-plumage is ashy or slaty-grey to grey-brown above and white or rufescent below marked with brown or rufescent bars or streaks. Unlike the Falcons the bill is furnished with a festoon instead of a 'tooth'. They have been classified in the Fauna of British India (Birds), 2nd Edn. under two main genera, the Astur and the Accipiter. 236 Birds in Sanskrit Literature The former includes the magnificent Goshawks, the Crested Goshawks and the Shikras, and the latter contains all the Sparrow-Hawks. It may be added that the Shikras also are just Sparrow Hawks and nothing more. In Sanskrit the term via is often used in a wider sense to include the Hawks as well, for both tee and free apply the term to all hawking birds, viz., Falcons and Hawks (cf. श्येनो वाजिक: भट्टोत्पल on बृ० सं० 85.38 ). But they also have different names for the several types of Hawks trained for sport. The Goshawk, which occurs in two forms, is वाज, बाजी, वाजि, or वाजिक; the Crested Goshawks, the erg; the Shikras, the firs; and the Sparrow- Hawks, the वासा: and the बेसरा: 2. The terms and art do not occur in the lists of the birds of prey given in orgy and it appears that while powerful Hawks like the Goshawk were supposedly included in the term by both, the efigar separately mentions the weaker and smaller Sparrow-Hawks including the Shikras as the farger (gfer a sparrow, hence 'sparrow-killers'). Sanskrit lexicons give anfaat merely as a common noun for 'a bird' in general but not in a specific sense for a particular bird (ff). The word has nowhere been rendered as 'a bird or a particular bird' but from the use of these two words for the Goshawk in the .. it is clear that they had this sense though the lexicographers have overlooked it. The अमरकोश includes शकुनि, शकुन, शकुन्त, पत्नी, विष्किर and गरुत्मत् in the list of synonyms for 'a bird' in general and yet each of these terms also signifies a particular bird and we have : face: शकुनिरातापी–अभि. चिन्ता, Here शकुनि also शकुनस्तु पुमान् पक्षिमात्रर्पा क्षविशेषयोः–मेदिनी, शकुन means a 'Kite'. a kind of Vulture शकुन्तः भास पक्षिविहङ्गयो:-ibid., शकुन्त, another Vulture पत्नी श्येने पत्नरथे— ibid., पत्नी a Hawk विष्किराः तित्तिरमयूरकुक्कुटादयः शब्दकल्पद्रुम गरुत्मत् सुपर्णः सुधाहृत् (the Golden Eagle) – अभि. चिन्ता. This is according to the rule "सामान्योऽपि विशेष वर्तते" quoted in अभि. चिन्ता, 404 and wi.. too has the following: श्येने पत्नीति वाजीति शब्दो वैशिष्ट्यसूचकः – 4.31 There is thus hardly any doubt that the terms and art also connoted a particular bird, i.e. the Goshawk. Tat in the sense of a v or a fast bird has been explained as "अतिशयितं प्रशस्तं वा पत्रमस्य" in the रामाश्रमी टीका on अमर by भानुजी दीक्षित, and it should not be incorrect if बाज and बाजी for 'a speed bird' are also explained in the same way: प्रशस्ता बाजा पक्षाऽस्य बाज: बाजी च 1. v.1. प्रान्जि and प्राजिक in मानसोल्लास. Compounds like वाजिपक्षिन् and प्राजिपक्षिन् (M.W.) would seem to be common names for Hawks in general. 2. The synonymy "वाजी बाणाश्वपक्षिषु"--मेदिनी, refers to two speedy items, बाण and ar so that it is possible to render the third, qeft also as 'a fast bird'. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 237 3. It has been stated in the Introductory sub-section that it is the more powerful and larger females of these birds that are preferred for hawking. It is therefore easy to understand that where we have a name for individual female Hawks used for the chase the male of every such female has not been named individually. Thus the male of the Goshawk (a in Sansk, and in Hindi) is in Persian and Hindi and in प्रये. शा. In मानसोल्लास the male of any Hawk or Falcon is simply a द्रोणक (or तोणक) i.e. a 'petty or little Crow', from a, a Crow. It is a contemptuous name signifying the poorer killing power of the male as compared with the female: द्रोणकश्चेति विख्यातः पुमानल्पशरीरकः । द्रोणका स्वल्पकायत्वादधमा लघुमारकाः ॥ Vol. 2,267 The पये. शा. confines the terms टुना or टोना (the same as तोणक) to the male Shikra alone, the term af to the males of the Besra Hawks and to the males of the Asiatic and Indian Sparrow-Hawks. These terms are current in Hindi as well and in the same senses. 4. The . T. divides the smaller Hawks into three categories; (i) aret, (ii) er, and (iii) ferra: The first are said to be of four kinds, the second of three and the third of several (). The type of Hawk thus consists of औरङ्गनाः, घावनाः, प्रतिष्ठाना and शिकारा: (the Shikras) • The वेसरा's are of three kinds: माणिक वेसर, चूलिकाङ्क (v.I. चूलांक in 5.5) वेसर, and शुद्ध वेसर, Lastly the सिचाना's ( सञ्चानाः), said to be of different kinds according to differences in size, habits and country of origin, have been barely men- tioned but not classified to save space (fear -4.50). The different species of Hawk and their nomenclature will now be considered in the following paragraphs. 5. The dult and the juvenile Goshawk, called them and the have been mentioned in para. 4 of the Introductory sub-section. It is the largest and the most powerful of the Hawks and is trained to strike down the largest variety of game like Grouse, Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Ducks, Bustards, Storks, Ibises, Spoonbill, Peafowl, Jungle Fowl, and even Kites and Vultures, Hares and Rabits both in Europe and Asia. Not that a single Hawk is trained to kill all these, but one can be trained to kill any five or six included in the above list. In nature, however, it preys upon Pheasants, Partridges and Pigeons with a partiality for Hares. Because of its all-round excellence, and being second only to the Peregrine and the Shaheen, it is called by courtesy the "gentle Falcon" (Astur gentilis). Its courage, flight and technique have always been admired: एवं लक्ष्यानुसरणात् बहुशः परिधावनात् । अतिविधम्भणाद् वाजा गताः श्रेष्ठधं पतत्रिषु ॥

• These, i.e. the Shikras, really belong to the fear: group and have been wrongly

placed with the ret: as will be explained later. 238 Birds in Sanskrit Literature उत्प्लुत्योत्प्लुत्य पतनैः परिगृह्यावपातनैः । मल्ला इव विदग्धानां हरन्ति प्रसभं मनः ॥ . IT., 6, 48-49 6. The term means a Hawk or Falcon according to M.W., and if it is the same as e, it should prove to be an excellent adnoun or epithet for the Goshawk. It means 'limping' or 'moving on one foot'. Now the Goshawk, despite its versatility, is "chiefly trained to catch hares and for this purpose she is booted or furnished with leather leggings to prevent her legs being injured by thorns as the hare generally drags the Hawk some yards after being struck. She strikes with one leg, and stretches the other one out behind to clutch at grass, twigs or anything on the ground, to put the drag, as it were on the hare" (Jerdon). It is thus highly probable that the adnoun refers to the Goshawk because she seems to 'limp' on the ground after striking her favourite quarry, a hare. If my interpretation of the term is correct it speaks volumes for the nature- study and power of observation of the ancients. 7. Hawks other than the Goshawk are listed with their names below. for easy reference: (i) The Shikra (Astur badius): Four sub-species of this occur in India proper, the Indian Shikra being the commonest. The female is far and the male, and at in . w. corresponding to for and respectively in Hindi. The female is recorded in F.B.I 2nd ed asतुना (?) in Nepal but she is सञ्चाण (सञ्चान) and the male द्रोणक or तोणक in मानसोल्लास. (ii) The Crested Goshawk (Astur trivirgat us trivirgatus) of South India is known as गोर बेसरा, कोटेसरा or मानिक बेसरा in Hindi. This is probably the form of .. as it lives prin- cipally on frogs and lizards and is hardly, if ever, fancied for hawking. (iii) The Northern Crested Goshawk (A.t. rufitinctus): This is known as चुरियारी and जमलकंठी in Nepal corresponding to Sansk. चूलिकाङ्क and fin . . and te respectively. This is the मध्यम वेसर of श्ये. शा. छुरिकार and छुरियारी of वर्णरत्नाकर appear to be the same as चुरियारी. (iv) The Asiatic Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus) two sub-species of which are known: The female and male of both are known as af and are respectively in Hindi. The Himalayan sub-species is the 'Indian Sparrow-Hawk'. They are perhaps the variety of the बासा in श्ये. शा., and ओरल of वर्णरत्नाकर The name बोरङ्गन seems to be from Persian औरंग meaning intelligence". 1. te probably refers to the Hawk's white breast streaked with rich rufous while मानिक-माणिक्य refers to the reddish streaks. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds (v) 239 The Southern and Northern Besra Sparrow-Hawks are two sub- species of Accipiter virgatus occurring in the country, the latter being a little smaller than the former. The Hindi names the female are बेसरा, खंड बेसरा, or खंडेसरा (fr. पण्ड a forest) corresponding to शुद्धवेसर of श्यै. शा. The male is धूति both in Hindi and Sansk. (w. T. 4.32). (vi) The Japanese, the Pale Eastern and the Indo-Chinese Sparrow- Hawks (A. gularis): The first is only an occasional winter visitor to India and the other two occur in Burma. No Indian name for them is known and they may well have passed as varieties of the Basha type of Sparrow-Hawk. 8. Two series of Indian (Hindi) names for different kinds of the Besra Hawk, taken from two different books on Indian Falconry (in Hindi or Urdu-not mentioned) have been quoted by Jerdon in his Illustra- tions of Indian Ornithology, 1847 and they are : (a) खंडेसरा, चतीसरा, सखुरता, and बेसरा (proper); (b) खंडबेसरा, खरबेसरा, जूतेसरा, भगुरीना, खोड खुरबेसरा and मानिकबेसरा*. He adds that the last three names in (b) may be different names for the same Hawk, and that while the Northern Crested Goshawk goes by the name of in South India it is known as fureft in the Eastern Terai (Bihar, and Assam?). the same way, referring to the Indian nomen- clature for the Shaheen Falcon and the Red-capped Falcon, both used in India for hawking, he observes that several varieties are enumerated, viz., the Red, the White, the Blue, and the Black Shaheens but these are merely differences of shade in the colours and in the more or less distinct- ness of the body markings. It is therefore highly probable that the classification of the group of Sparrow-Hawks in the . is not in accordance with the real species of the Hawks as now separated by scientists but is based mainly on their colour features and partly on size and behaviour as trained birds. Insofar as the Shikras (fr) have been included in the TT group the classification is definitely incorrect. The Shikra belongs to the fema () group of Sparrow-Hawks and is not a arer at all. With these preliminary remarks on the nomenclature of the smaller Hawks I proceed to a brief discussion of the various Hawks and their Sankskrit and other names. 9. The basis for the arer type of Hawks are evidently the Asiatic and the Indian Sparrow Hawks known as a and in Hindi. The . . divides them into four categories: . seem to be Like घंडेसरा (खंडबेसरा) the names चतीसरा and जूतेसरा corruptions of जूटबेसरा- (the crested Goshawk, of the फोटेसर) and खरबेसरा (the true (Besra) is the शुद्ध वेसर. भगुरीना, खोड and खुर बेसरा are extremely doubtful. कोटेस्वर (in F.B.I.) should be फोटेसर or कोटेसरा corrupted from कूट बेसरा for the crested Goshawk. 240 Birds in Sanskrit Literature औरङ्गना धावनाश्च प्रतिष्ठानास्तथैव च । शिकाराश्चेति वासानां चतुर्धा जातिरुच्यते ॥ 4.41 Eliminating the शिकारा: (the Shikras) we are left with the औरङ्गन, घावन, and af Hawks each of which is supposed to be of more than one variety. according to their flight, courage or dash and colour. The aft, i.e. the proper would seem to be the two kinds of Sparrow-Hawks named against (iv) above while the ur and sfert types are rather difficult of identification. The ओरङ्गल and ठरङ्गल of वर्णरत्नाकर would seem to correspond to stand of the .. and from the delicate build and small size but excellent speed of the described in v. m. 4. 43 they seem to be the Northern Besra Sparrow-Hawk which is smaller than even a Shikra but very speedy on the wing. The sfeer type described as very weak and timid and coming from art would seem to refer to some foreign Hawks, e.g. the Japanese, the Pale Eastern, and the Indo-Chinese Sparrow-Hawks not used for hawking.¹ 10. The name are for the Asiatic and Indian Sparrow-Hawks seems at first sight to be a Hindi corruption from Persian Båshå but it is more than probable that like the Pers. Bäz (fr. Sansk. r) 'Basha' too is from Sansk. TT from ara (?, a nest) after the practice of falconers to prefer young birds taken from the nest. they can be more easily trained than the adults captured in the ordinary way. This practice is referred to in the following verse: ये श्येना नीडनिलया लब्धाः प्राग्बन्धपोषिताः । सुशिष्या इव ते श्येनाः शिक्षां गृह, णन्ति सत्वरम् ॥–श्ये. शा. 6.6.7 सच्चाणा वेसरा ग्राह्या नीडस्थाश्च करग्रहै: मानसोल्लास, Vol. 2, p. 267. On the other hand the term may be from root -, to make a sound- "वास्यन्ते रुवन्तीति वासा: पक्षिण इत्यन्य:"गण. महोदधि, verse 296. As compared with the Goshawk the Sparrow-Hawk is a rather noisy bird, a point stressed in ..: "वासा मधुरवाग् धन्यो, वाजी मूकोऽतिशोभनः" – 4.54 In this second sense also the name aer would be a purely Sanskrit name for the above mentioned Sparrow-Hawks.² 11. The eg lists are as one of the birds of prey and it obviously refers to the Hawks mentioned as बेसरा: both in मानसोल्लास and श्यैनिक शास्त्र, The latter distinguishes three different kinds of the Hawk: 1. In the alternative the fast: may be the Harriers. See next sub-section. 2. The te does not mention the TT Hawks, which it probably includes x type and these it recommends, as we have seen, to be taken from the nest. On the other hand, unlike the vif it keeps the crested Goshawks in a separate [category as the यवलकष्ठिका in the Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds वेसरास्त्रिविधास्तेषां पृथङ नामाभिधीयते । स्थूलोऽधमो माणिकस्तु चूलिकाङ्कस्तु मध्यमः । शुद्धस्तु वासाप्रतिमः पक्षाधिकोऽपि साहसे ॥ 4.47-48 (i) माणिक वेसर, probably the Crested Goshawk of South India which is गोर- or frà in Hindi. It is described as a i.e. dull or stupid, and also as are (mean, low, worthless), because of its low teachability for the chase as in nature it prefers to take frogs and lizards though it also kills smal birds, rats, etc. (ii) farg or yang occupies an intermediate position (T), and it should be the Northern Crested Goshawk known as feare in Hindi, the same as चूनाङ्कित, from Sansk. चूडा, चूड, चूल, a crest. It is a bolder bird and kills Partridges, Green Pigeons and even larger hirds. Another Hindi name for it is जमलकंठी corresponding to यवलकण्ठिक of मानसोल्लास. This name would seem to refer to the dark shafts on the neck-feathers looking like dark or barley markings. (iii) The third is the rec said to be as good as the ("वासाप्रतिम") and therefore the best of the series. It is most probably the Southern Besra Hawk, known not only as the speediest of all Sparrow-Hawks (Jerdon) but also a bold bird, and for this reason a favourite with falconers for small birds like Quails and Doves. The epithet refer may also refer to its very noisy habit. Just as the terms and it mean both a spirited horse and the powerful Go- shawk, the name et (a speedy) also is common to the mule and these lower grade Sparrow-Hawks. The Besra series are also more difficult to train for sport (Jerdon) and the name for them perhaps implies. their 'mulish' nature as well. 12. The firm type of Hawks are said to be of several kinds with differ- ences in size, body-colouration and habits, and breeding in different parts of the country. In a word different species of the bird are indicated : अनेकदेशजन्मानस्तेन देशस्वभावतः । नानासंस्थानचेष्टाभिः सिचाना नैकधा स्मृताः ॥ 241 श्ये. शा. 4.49 The generic name सिचान (Hindi सचान; चिचान of poet कबीर quoted in हि. श. सा.) is a Prakrit form of Sansk. सञ्चान श० कल्प० (सम्यक् चानयति, excellent killers), defined as a brave Hawk: "महावीरस्तु गरुडे सञ्चानविहगेऽपि च" मेदिनीकोश 1. cf. "बांसा बटेर सब ओ सिचान धूती रु चिप्पिका चटक भान" quoted in हि. श. सा. is Hindi for the male Shikra in F.B.I. In the verse. under forfra. ferrest, feroces therefore fe is the female & ffer the male Shikra; cf. SK. fer for a female Hawk falcon; also "वाजिका पक्षिजातिः स्यात्"—अनेकार्बध्वनिमज्जरी, verse 185. 2. The Shikra is a noisy bird and has a loud double call-tui tui-which may also be rendered as चुइ बु. चिचुकार of वर्णरत्नाकर may be this Hawk and it is likely that a non-Sanskrit imitative name like f- for it has been Sanskritised into with a plausible etymology; ef. Hindi fafara-to shout. Birds in Sanskrit Literature According to the शब्दकल्पद्रुम 'सञ्चान' is the Shikra. It is one of the best known Hawks of India, a small, stout bird, grey above, rusty below with whitish bars and a fierce golden yellow or orange eye. It is a favourite with Indian falconers as it begins to catch small birds for its keeper within ten days of being caught, Stuart Baker describes it as "a most plucky little Hawk" which is fully supported by the w. w. : 242 • सुशीला जवना हिस्राः शिकाराश्चण्डसाहसाः । च्योतन्त इव पीयूषं दृशोः संस्थानसौष्ठवैः ॥ श्यै. शा., 4.45 The epithet महावीर is thus seen to be a fitting tribute to the most power- ful Eagle on the one hand and a compliment to the pluckiest of small Hawks, the Shikra, on the other. Thus the शिकारा proper of श्यै. शा., incorrectly placed in the group, is the common Indian Shikra while the सिचाना: are the other forms or sub-species of the Shikra occurring in the extreme North- West, the extreme South, and North-East (Assam) of India. 13. The female Shikra is the सञ्चाण of मानसोल्लास where the male is named as द्रोणक or atणक, the same as टुना or टोना of श्यै. शा. 4.32. In Nepal however it is the fermale that is known as तुना which occurs as टोना in Hindi poetry (see quotation in f.n. to para. 5 of the Introductory Sub- section). Finally, the Shikra and the Black-crested Baza feed on flying termites and these, particularly the former as the commoner bird, should be the वाल्मीकि (fr. वल्मी, बनी white-ant) of the Mahābhārat List ( 5.101.11). E. KITES, HARRIERS, & BUZZARDS 1. The Brahminy Kite is “a bright chestnut bird of prey with black wing- tips and white head and breast, found near water." In flight and habits it resembles the Common Pariah Kite and lives on fish caught by itself or on fish-offal to be found near fishing villages, crabs, frogs etc. It is also given to robbing Crows and Common Kites of their food. Its oldest name is कङ्क or more correctly लोहपृष्ठक corresponding to the name, "the Maroon backed Kite", given to it by Jerdon because of its chestnut upper parts. The name कडू, however, belongs to several other birds with of course appropriate descriptive epithets and it has been a matter of some difficulty to separate them, especially because the lexicons have lumped together the different epithets in a common synonymy. Some of the lexical equa- tions relating to different kinds of कडू are reproduced below :- 1) "कंकस्तु कर्कटस्कन्धः पर्कट: कमनच्छदः 2) दीर्घपादो प्रियापत्यो लोहपृष्ठश्च मल्लकः" –वैजयन्ती "कङ्कस्तु कमनच्छदः लोहपृष्ठो दीर्घपाद: कर्कट: स्कन्धमल्लकः" अभि. चिन्तामणि Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 3) "कङ्कस्तु लोहपृष्ठ: स्यात्संदंशवदनः खरः । रणालङ्करणः क्रूरः स च स्यादामिषप्रियः" राजनिघण्ट 4) "लोहपृष्ठस्तु कृकर: संदंशवदनः खर: रणालङ्करण: क्रूरः कुकरआमिषप्रियः" “उपचक्र: श्वनतनुः (शुभ्रतनुः ? ) कृशचञ्चुर्मदाविलः" – कल्पद्रुकोश (5) "को लोहपृष्ठे"-मेदिनी, हेमचन्द्र, अमर, विश्वप्रकाश etc. 6) "जलाटनः कङ्कखगे”–हेमचन्द्र 7) 8) 9) 10) "जलाटनो लोहपृष्ठ:"विश्वप्रकाश "कोलपुच्छस्तु कङ्क:"-हारावली "कालपृष्ठस्तु कङ्कपक्षिणि" – विश्वप्रकाश, हेमचन्द्र etc. "दीर्घपादस्तु कङ्कः स्यात्, गलेगण्डस्तु मर्कट:"विकाण्डशेष "बकः कङ्को बकोटच" - राजनिघण्ट, कल्पद्रु. 243 11) 12) "अरिष्ट काककङ्कयोः" विश्वप्रकाश 2. The following five different birds, all going under the name of कङ्क (के जले, जलोपरि, जलसान्निध्ये वा अद्भुति गच्छति) are indicated in the above extracts and everyone of them is a जलाटन and आमिषप्रिय i.e. keeps to the neighbour- hood of water and lives on animal food :- i) The Brahminy Kite is लोहपृष्ठकङ्क, कमनच्छद रणालङ्करणकङ्क, अरिष्टकडक ii) The Common or Grey Heron- कृशचन्बु or संदेशवदन-कङ्क or कङ्क बक (Art. 82 ) iii) The Adjutant Stork दीर्घपाद, गलेगण्ड मर्केट, कर्कटस्कन्ध - (कर्कर-?), कोलपुच्छ, स्कन्धमल्लक, क ( Art. 81) iv) The Lesser Adjutant Stork दीर्घपादक (Art. 81) v) Pallas's Fishing Eagle-प्रियापत्य घर, क्रूर-कालपृष्ठ-, कङ्क where वर and क्रूर mean a noisy श्येन, Eagle, (Art 52). Equation 6 is true of all five, but Nos. 5 and 7 refer to the Brahminy Kite alone. No. 8 and the second half of No. 10 are applicable to the Adjutant alone and refer to its pendant pouch hanging from the neck and in front of its chest, while the first half of No. 10 is shared by it with the Lesser Adjutant as an allied form. No. 1 has equated with the Brahminy Kite, the Adjutants and Pallas's Fishing Eagle. Similarly it will be seen that equations Nos. 2-4 have mixed up several of the above five birds..No. 11 refers to the Grey Heron and even the white Ibis (बक, बर्काट Art. 80 ) as a kind of कङ्क, and No. 12 to the Black Crow or the Raven ((कृष्ण शकुनि) prin- cipally as a bird of evil omen, and the Brahminy Kite as a permanently auspicious bird, the term अरिष्ट as a homonym being understood in its two opposite meanings, viz., 'evil' and 'good', 13. In this article we are concerned with as the Brahminy Kite alone and for others the reader is referred to the Articles noted against them. The present Kite is कमनच्छद because of its beautiful plumage and रणालंकरण because it was commonly present over battle-fields along with Vultures, Ravens, Crows and Common Kites to snatch tit-bits from them, 244 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and also because its presence over an army was supposed to presage victory to it. This belief was shared even by the Mussalmans who call it 'Ru- mubarik' or 'lucky-faced'. This also explains the name for it. The qug relates that God fir was once secretly enjoying the company of certain pretty women in the absence of Parvati and the latter divining the truth assumed the form of this Kite (g), flew to the place and drove off her rivals. People wishing for good luck are therefore advised to greet the bird at sight and address the following prayer to it² :- “कुङ्कमारक्तसर्वाङ्गि कुन्देन्दुधवलानने । सर्वमङ्गलदे देवि क्षेमङ्करि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥ The first half of the verse, it will be noticed, describes correctly the colour pattern of the bird's plumage. People in South India follow this advice but incorrectly call the bird Garuda. This name (fe) corresponds to af in a good sense as already indicated above. 4. Other names for this semi-sacred bird are धर्मचिल्ल, शंखचिल्ल, and कम्ब्बा- तायिन् (कम्बु, a white conch, and आतायिन् a Kite), the last two in reference to its white head, neck and upper breast. As eft and are the names of Durgå or Parvati they would also appear to be additional names for the bird whose form she assumed : "चचिका चिल्लदयिते खकामिन्यौ प्रकीर्तिते ।"–त्रिकाण्डशेष The name for this Kite is perhaps after its persistent call notes or it may refer to its body which looks as if painted with white and red sandal (cf. f), while reft (loving the sky) refers to its soaring habit. For as a possible name for this Kite see Art. 81, (5) para 7. 5. There is some doubt as to the identity of f (lover of one's progeny) as there are recorded instances of both the Brahminy Kite and Pallas's Fishing Eagle fiercely defending the nest, or young in the nest. E.H.N. Lowther, F.Z.S. speaking about this Kite says:-"there are few species more bold in the defence of their 'lares et penates' than is this species. Of the Brahminy Kite I think I can say, that always it has attack- ed us when we have climbed to its nest,' or busied ourselves building a tower from which to photograph the bird; and always it has struck home and usually drawn blood".... Pallas's Fishing Eagle, which does not attack a stealer of its eggs, shows a different temper as soon as the young are 1. सुष्टिखण्ड Ch 53. - 2. Ibid. 53.15. An alternative reading is quoted in g under "कुमारुणसर्वाङ्गि कुन्देन्दुधवलानने E मत्स्यमांसप्रिये देवि क्षेमकुरि नमोस्तु ते" The statement in the F.B.I. that this kite is sacred to god fire is incorrect and it is based upon an erroneous belief prevalent in certain parts of South India that it is the mythology. The physical basis of res is the Golden Eagle (Section A of this article) and the Brahminy Kite can only he said to be sacred to god fit for reasons given above. 3. Journal, Bom. Nat. His. Soc., Vol. 45. p. 6. sof Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 245 hatched out and it will then defend its young (3) with fierceness and determination. Hume writes from personal experience that once this Eagle attacked a man "with an unexpected ferocity from which nothing but my gun could have saved him". The female finding the man was able to avoid her attack, gave a shrill cry which brought the male on the scene and both then charged together with rage and fierceness of despair, and he had to fire and wound both of them as they advanced, and but for this they would have certainly hurled the man down into the river. He adds that the birds are not offensive before the eggs are hatched. Now both the Kite and the Eagle are and both may be described as far, but perhaps, the Eagle has a better right to the epithet as it loves and defends its young only but not the nest or even the eggs.¹ 6. This Kite is always found near water and is seen flying back and forth or floating lazily in wide circles overhead. This habit of flying in circles and thus facing round in all directions won for it the distinction of being named as a victim for the deities presiding over the points of the compass in "दिशां कड़ को"-बाज संहिता, and its method of picking up food from the surface of village tanks where water-nuts and lilies always grow, has furnished a name for a certain type of ascetics leading a hand to mouth life- "बिसङ्गाटकाहारास्ते कङ्काः साधकाः स्मृताः" स्कन्दपुराण A poet has pictured this Kite as the evening twilight: “सिन्धोः सुधांशुशकलं परिगृह्य सन्ध्या- क्षेमङ्करी निपतिताम्बरभूरुहाग्रे । चञ्चूपुटेन चपलेन तथा विकीर्णा- स्तारामिषेण पतिता इव पक्षखण्डा:" ॥ सुभाषित 7. The Common Pariah Kite and allied forms are common everywhere. In literature they are mentioned by the names of wf and qut while the lexicons give चिल्ल, चिरम्भण आतायिन्, and शुद्री (धन्वन्तरिनिघण्टु) as additional names. If the equation, "खभ्रान्तिः कण्ठनीडक:"-विकाण्डशेष does not apply to the Kestrel as suggested in Section D, para 17, it would give two other syno- nyms for the Common Kite. In the Vaj. Sam. a kite is dedicated to the deity presiding over 'Marksmanship' or the Art of Archery: "oare: frogr 1. S. Baker holds the opposite view, viz. that this Eagle is a cowardly bird (F.B.I. 2nd ed.) though he refers to Hutton for a graphic description of a ferocious defence put up by a pair for their young. 2. 24.31. It may well share the name fear of the grar List with the Kestrel, and also be the firring (painted tail) of the same List from its chestnut tail. The last name can also be claimed by several birds with bars on the tail. 3. प्रभासक्षेत्रमाहात्म्य, 106.64. 4. 297.25. 246 Birds in Sanskrit Literature शकुनिस्ते शख्यायै”–वाज. सं० 20.24 as it picks up scraps of food unerringly either from the ground or when thrown up to it in the air-even from the hands of a person carrying eatables in the open. The only other bird possible in the context of the Samhita is the Brahminy Kite who i a past master at taking grasshoppers off the stems of growing rice, and the unerring aim with which it takes off the insect without seemingly so much as touching the stalk is really wonderful. Tut in the imaginary picture below is no other than the Common Kite :- "श्येनावपातमवपत्य पदद्वये माम आदाय धर्ममपरेण करेण घोरा वेगेन सा गगनमुत्पतिता नखाग्र- क्वोटिस्फुरत्पिशितपिण्डयुतेव गृधी" । – प्रबोधचन्द्रोदय 8. The Black-winged Kite (13") is light ashy-grey above with the lesser and median wing-coverts black, and white below. It occasionally hovers like the Kestrel and seen from below it appears to be a pure white bird with black wing-tips. It would therefore appear to be the 4 (white water-lily) of the Mahabharata List. Seen from above or when sitting it is a small black and white Kite but being predominantly white it goes by the name of reft (cotton-white) in Hindi and may well have been known as offer in Sanskrit though this name is nowhere recorded. wf being the larger Pariah Kite and its allied forms fire should be thus the smallest of Kites. M. Williams does not render as a Kite but देशीनाममाला equates Prakrit Kite-names like सउलि (शकुनि) and चिल्ला with शकुनिका; cf. चटक a sparrow, and चटिका or चटकिका a little sparrow. 9. This Black-winged Kite would seem to be the fas a bird of augury in वसन्तराज :- •संमुखी शबलिकाऽथ वामिका श्रेयसी यदि च भास संगता । तद्विशेषशुभदा तु सामिषा यस्य मूनि पतेत्स भूपतिः । - 8.37 fer fear None of the commentators gives any synonym, Sansk. or Hindi for which, however, should not be the Common Pariha Kite since the does not include the ubiquitous Kite (fa, qut or fe) as a bird of augury. Moreover it is only with the rarest of incidents and un- common combinations in bird-behaviour that the choicest of boons, e.g. kingship, can go as a prediction. In above verse the mere sight of fer in certain positions is auspicious, more so in association with w the Scavenging Vulture, but if by any chance it settles on the head of a person, the latter is destined for kingship. Considering everything therefore this black and white Kite should be the wafer of The Common Kite is known as or in Gujarati and if these names are from Sansk. eft, it may be an example of the transference of the name of a rather Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds uncommon bird to a common and familiar one, for the name ft (pied) would hardly fit the predominantly brown Kite of India. 247 10. The Harriers also known as Field-Kites,' are a well-defined group of Hawks, easily recognized by their flight and appearance. They make nests on the ground or amongst reeds in marshes. They never perch on trees and therefore, roost on the ground for the night, and here, they are sometimes surprised and killed by Jackals. Out of five varieties found in India only two breed in the country and the others are winter visitors. They fly low over the paddy plains, marshes and jheels and buoyantly quarter the ground for hours, poising for a moment almost motionless aloft, or glide in circles to great heights. They prey upon lizards, frogs, insects, mice, young or sickly birds, etc. but are simply incapable of catching even small healthy birds. The Pale and Montagu's Harriers are known as firefer (lizard- killer, Sansk. कुकलासक ?) and पराई (Sansk. पंत्री Hawk), and the Pied Harrier as अबलक पत्तई (शबल पत्नीthe Pied Hawk). These names would seem to show that the term fa, , apart from being a common noun for 'a bird' is also a specific term for a Hawk-like bird, probably the Harriers with and for birds like Montagu's Harrier and the Marsh- Harrier respectively. The significance of the name ft for these Hawks seems to lie in the fact that beyond the powers of sustained flight, i.e. wing- power, they have hardly any claim to recognition as Hawks proper, i.e. as birds fit for the chase. In other words they possess a graceful flight but are absolutely useless for purposes of hawking. In this connection I would recall the fa type of Hawks considered in the preceding Sub-section, "पत्रप्रायाः प्रतिष्ठाना मन्दा बेगे च साहसे"-ये. शा. 4.43 It is thus quite possible that the fa (fr. fast foot, and hence the lowest ? – M.W.) are the पत्नी ("पत्नी श्येने"-हेमचन्द्र) type of Hawks, viz the Harriers defined as पत्रप्रायाः-पत्नाण्येव प्रशस्तपक्षा एव सन्ति अस्य न तु शौर्यम्, a श्येन by appearance but not in action. 11. Reverting to the names and was probable names for some of the Harriers it is interesting to note that they occur with other bird-names in the following verse : हंसकाकमयूराणां कृकलासकसारसाम् । रूपाणि च बलाकानां गृधचक्राङ गयोरपि ॥ MBh. 13.14.145 God fire is supposed to assume at pleasure the forms of the birds named in the verse. Te, a garden lizard, is too mean a creature to be considered in the context and must be understood in the sense of a bird, and the forma- tion of the word is analogous to that of gf (one that takes or kills. sparrows, discussed in the preceding Sub-section) for the Sparrow-Hawks. 1. Compare 'o' in Bengali for the Marsh Harrier. The name means a 'field or medow Kite'. 248 Birds in Sanskrit Literature should thus be the same as firefreure for, a Harrier (para 9 above). M. Williams on the other hand separates the last two words of the first line as me and were, and renders the latter as a kind of bird', but this I have not met with it in literature or in any other lexicon. The term re may be the same as ur for the Crane or it may, placed as it is with , refer to the Marsh-Harrier which flies chiefly over water- logged areas in search of frogs, water-mice, sickly birds, insects, etc. for food. 12. The Buzzards are closely allied to the Eagles but due to extreme colour variation among them it is almost impossible to distinguish the different species in the field. They are comparatively sluggish birds with a heavy flight and feed upon rats, mice, frogs, lizards, large insects, etc. and go by the name of a (rat-hawk) in Hindi corresponding to Sansk. fufcemer (fafe, fafest a mouse, and we to move or w a dart) for a kind of Hawk in ftare but not found in Sansk. lexicons none of which however claims to be exhaustive in any respect. The sentence, "aragrafent श्पैनो गतः—"the Hawk went away taking hold of the mouse in सिद्धान्तकौमुदी, Basu's translation, supports the name fafcare for a kind of Hawk. 13. The Indian Crested Honey Buzzard (27") is a brown Hawk with a dense body-plumage and the entire face covered with small scale-like feathers. Thus equipped by nature it is free to attack combs of wasps and bees and feed upon honey wax, larvae and even bees (Oates, F.B.I., first edition). It is known as in Nepal and is the gr* or (honey-thief) of figat. Two of the names for the progeny of Garuda in the Maha- bhārata List, viz., मधुपर्क (मधुना पर्को सम्पर्को यस्य – शब्दकल्प०) and सोमभोजन (cf. "एलई प्रत्यक्षात् सोमरूपं यम्मधु"—शत. ब्राह्मण, 12.8.2.15) probably refer to this Hawk. 14. The Indian Black-crested Baza is a very small Hawk (13"). It is a black and chestnut bird with a long black nuchal crest, black tail, and white breast with two broad white and chestnut bands separating the black neck and the white breast. The eyes are beautiful and lustrous. It is thus a very beautiful little Hawk and is aptly known as TH (beautifully dark, cf. var for sig) in Nepal. The term is an adnoun for the Indian Koel but the lexicons do not give it for a Hawk. H is a name of one of the descendants of the Mahabharata List, and is also the name of god f, represented as a beautiful youth. It is therefore suggested that the name may well refer to this handsome Baza. af for a bird ut in the following verse probably refers to a human robber of a honey-comb: सर्वथा संहितैरेव दुर्बलंबलवानपि । अमितः शक्यते हन्तुं मधुहा अमरैरिव ॥ - MBh. 5.33.70 But with a pun on yg it can apply to man and Hawk both, for it is just possible that occasionally by a determined attack by a swarm of infuriated rock-bees even the Hawk is driven off. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds of prey has already been suggested in Section B, para 2 for the Crested Hawk Eagle but it can also apply to this bird as it has a black crest and a black tail, for five means both 'crest' and 'tail' of a bird. tf would then be a Hawk in which both these parts are black. 249 53 PIGEONS AND DOVES A. INTRODUCTORY 1. No sharp distinction can be drawn between Pigeons and Doves both of which are members of the family Columbidae but the name Pigeon is exclusively given to the wild Pigeon and the name Dove is most commonly applied to the smaller members of the group. In general English literature, however, the two words are used almost indifferently. though the In Sanskrit literature also, the position is exactly the same, terms graad and denote the wild Blue Rock Pigeon and Dove respec- tively in Caraka, Suśruta and some Law-books (frer), the poets have not always observed the distinction and the domestic Pigeon is even according to Caraka and others. The lexicons, with certain exceptions like the Vaijayanti, have treated the terms as synonymous. Indeed, ,1 would seem to be the oldest name for both Pigeon and Dove, as according to Vedic scholars in the Rgveda does not mean a Pigeon and the term would seem to have been used for both. Thus in Rgveda (1.30.4) probably refers to a Pigeon. Here it is evidently regarded as an auspicious bird, for god Indra is requested to approach the cup of Soma juice offered to him with the warmth and eagerness of a Pigeon courting his mate. In the tenth Mandala (165.1-5), however, which may well be separated in point of time from the first Mandala by several centuries, the is a messenger of evil. If this was a particular kind of Dove, as is highly probable, it would appear to make the beginning of the prejudice against the Dove as a bird of evil omen. The belief, probably originated, as all superstitions generally do, with a few accidental coincidences of serious domestic calamity including death, with the entry of some particular Dove into the house. This old Rgvedic prejudice against the ta finds an echo in the Vájasaneyi Samhitä where a distinction between and arra has been observed for the first time. The grad as an auspicious bird is named for the auspicious day, "अहे पारावतानालभते, 24.25 while कपोत 1. The equation, कपोत: स्याच्चितकण्ठपा रावतविहङ्गयोः- मेदिनी, shows that the includes both Dove and Pigeons. term Pigeons and Doves कपोत = Pigeon ] and Dove in the Rg Veda -पारावत- Pigeon -हारिद्रक, ef carrer हारीत, Green Pigeon कपोत Doves -भस्माङ्ग पारावत, efter ter -रुचक कपोत 2 . पारावत श्वेत पारावत Snow Pigeon afcater -पट or वर्धमान कपोत --अरुण or काण-कपोत Any Green Pigeon Imperial Green Pigeons - or कोकदेव } Green Pigeons -चित्र-or Blue Rock Pigeon Wood Pigeon [-धूसर कपोत- Little Brown Dove कुंकुमधूम्पकपोत-- Do & Rufous Turtle Dove Pin-or White-tailed [-शुकच्छवि-or हारीत कपोत } -Red Turtle Dove चित्रपक्ष कपोत -घवल कपोत- Ring Dove -तुषार कपोत (Back formation from तुसाल) } }Spotted Dove 251 Bar-tailed Cucl Emerald Dove Birds in Sanskrit Literature (Dove) is placed in charge, as it were, of Miträvaruņa, the deities who are the joint-upholders and guardians of the world, promoters of religious rites and avengers of sin aad untruth, "मित्रावरुणाभ्यां कपोतान्-24.23 and again said to belong to निति the goddess of Misery, कपोत उलूकः शशस्ते निऋत्यै-24.36. The association of उलूक, कपोत, and the crop destroying शश is worth noting. कपोत which was hiterto an inclusive terms came to be restricted to Doves, and Pigeons now came to be known as (coming from afar, i.e. from hills and mountains where they went back to roost and breed as against Doves which lived nearer home). That Pigeons have long been welcome birds is clear from the following in the Mahabharata :- 252 गृहे पारावता धन्याः शुकाञ्च सह सारिकाः गृहेष्वेते न पापाय तथा वे तैलपायिकाः ॥ – 13.107.106 Given even a particular kind of Dove as a bird of ill-omen e.g. in RV and VS, it is an easy step for all Doves to be so regarded. This would seem to be the reason why far, 47.4-6 recommends such natural waters for princes to bathe in as are not only situated in beautiful surroundings but also have auspicious birds calling or singing in the neighbourhood, and the list of birds named purposely excludes (Dove) though it includes पारावत Bhattotpala expands the illustrative list of "कौशिक गृप प्रभूति:" by add- the efgar, 87.12-13 all the three ing to it “काक कडू प्लव श्येन कपोता. According varieties of Dove common in North India are inauspicious. Kalidasa and other poets do not refer to a Dove as such and both the terms gra, when used by them, always mean a Pigeon, domestic or wild. and B. PIGEONS 1. Green Pigeons are well represented throughout India and despite differences in colour-pattern or size there is no mistaking a Green Pigeon as they are all cast upon a common model and the habits of all are similar. They are "comparatively small Pigeons which may be known at a glance by their beautifully soft green plumage, often mixed with maroon or lilac on the shoulders or back, and always with one, and sometimes with two, bold yellow bars across the wings. By car, too, these lovely birds may always be identified... their musical whistling call being quite unlike the coo of any Dove or Pigeon of other groups." They are entirely arbo- real in their habits and live on wild fruits, figs of all kinds, berries, plums, etc., including such large fruits as the black-plum () and nutmeg (fr) which are swallowed whole. They occasionally descend to drink 1. सारिका in the Versc is the Grackle or Common Myna and तैलपायिका the starling-Arts. 20, 21. 2. Stuart Baker, "Indian Pigeons and Doves." Pigeons and Doves at the river's edge but normally prefer to climb down overhanging canes and bushes until they are within reach of the water. They keep a firm foot-hold when moving about in thick foliage, and if a bird is shot at and killed it sometimes simply hangs downwards or if the twig gives way, it comes down with the twig still firmly held in its feet. The popular belief that a green Pigeon never sets foot on the ground except with a twig held in its feet has nothing more than the above facts for a basis. This fiction. has furnished some beautiful similes in Hindi poetry, but, perhaps, not in Sanskrit. 2. All Green Pigeons are हारिद्रक ( चरक, 1.26,86), हरिद्राङ्ग, हारीत or हरिताल, corresponding to gf or gf in Hindi and Bengali, though a couple of species are known as कोषु and कोकदेव in Sanskrit and कोकला in Hindi. Similarly, Imperial Green Pigeons of large size are वर्द्धमान कपोत, पट or पटाव in Sanskrit. The Green Pigeons of Malabar are the gre of Kalidasa - मारीचोद्भ्रान्तहारीता: मलयाद्वेरुपत्यका:- रघुवंश, 4.46 The black-plum (() is the favourite food of the Bengal Green Pigeon. and the it in the following is evidently this bird. The Wood Pigeons of the Himalayas also eat this fruit but they are not found in the Vindhyan country : फलपुलकितजम्बूकुञ्जकूजत्कपोत- प्रियशबरपुरन्ध्री बन्धवो विन्ध्यलेखाः - अनर्घराघव, 5.27 253 Their sweet whistling notes have often been appreciated. A jungle scene on the Tamasa river: प्रहृष्टनानाविधपक्षिसेवितं प्रमत्तहारीतकुलोपनादितम् समन्ततः सुन्दरदर्शनीयतां समुल्लसत्तद्वन मुल्नसन्महत् God Siva affectionately mentions a Green Pigeon who, by nesting in a branch overhanging his shrine and thus seeking his protection secured a place in heaven: हारीतः कोऽपि सम्प्राप्तः शाखानीडो ममान्तिके Green Pigeons with other beautiful-voiced birds in a jungle-scene :- कोकिले: कलविश्व हारीतर्जीवजीवकः श्रोतरम्यं सुमधुरं कूजद्भिवाप्यधिष्ठितम् 1. The Emerald Dove is also re, perhaps more correctly. 2. Skanda Purana, Ayodhyāmahatmya, Ch. 9.30. 3. Skanda Purana, Arunacalamähätmya, Pürvakhanda Ch. 9. 4. Mahabharata, III. 158, 53-54; Märkandeya Purana, 6, 18-19. Birds in Sanskrit Literature. 3. The Pin-tailed and the Wedge-tailed Green Pigeons are also found in North India, the former from Kumaon eastwards and the latter through- out the Himalayas and the broken country below them. They must also be regarded as gra or fear, but from the orange-pink colour of their breasts they are known as कोकला in Hindi corresponding to कोकयु and कोकदेव and probably also in Sanskrit. Their notes are sweeter than those of other birds of the class. In particular the notes of the Wedge-tailed bird are "fuller, richer, and more sweet than those of any other Green Pigeon" (S. Baker). For this reason this last bird is very much sought after as a pet. Both these species are generally seen either singly or in pairs, or in very small parties of a few birds only. In this also as in the colouring of their breasts they resemble the or birds. These two species stand mid- way in point of size between those considered earlier and the next group. 4. The largest among the Green Pigeons of North India are the Green Imperial Pigeon and Hodgson's Imperial Pigeon measuring up to 18 and 20 inches in length respectively. They occur in and east of Nepal. Both have the head, neck and the whole of the lower parts (except the tail-coverts) a beautiful pale dove-grey, vinous pink or vinous-grey with the upper parts green in the first and copper-brown in the second bird. The contrast between the darker upper plumage and the lighter head, neck and breast makes it appear as if the birds wear a light silken upper garment or scarf, thrown over the head and neck, and brought down in front upon the chest after the style of women in North India, and this accounts for their Hindi name of a from Sanskrit g for a fine upper garment; cf. qe" and "" in the following from a 254 शनैर्वजन्नेव स गौरवेण पटावृतांशो विनतार्धकाय:- 5.7. सानासयन्ती वलभीपुटस्थान् पारावतानूपुरनिस्वनेन सोपानकुक्षि प्रससार हर्षात् भ्रष्टं दुकूलान्तमचिन्तयन्ती -- 6.8. 5. Now is one of the auspicious birds mentioned in Lalitavistara. (ch. 21, p. 398) :- पटक्रौञ्चहंसकोकिलमयूराः अभिप्रदक्षिणं करोन्ति ध्रुवमस्य जयो भवत्यद्य । पटाक is also a kind of bird in शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि दुकूल and पट are almost synony- mous terms and both are frequently used in the sense of or upper garment: दुकूलं सूक्ष्मवस्त्रे स्यादुत्तरीये सितांशुके-- शब्दार्णव चण्डालस्तिमिरावगुण्ठनपटक्षेपं विधत्ते विधुः-साहित्यदर्पण, 3, under दुकूलपटपल्लवेन....कृतशिरोवेष्टन: कादम्बरी verse 76 आरोप्य उत्तरीयपटादि-सहृदयलीला, अलंकारोल्लेख, का. मा. Pt. 5 1. Sabdarnava, cited by Pathaka on Meghadüta, 65, 2. Kadambari, Kale's edition, Pt. 1. p. 33. 255 Pigeons and Doves पट (पटेन आवृतः हव), therefore, is either or both of these birds, and so also पटाक, All Pigeons and Doves are bad-tempered and quarrelsome but these are an exception, and as peace-loving birds, have been selected as one of the "मङ्गल्प पक्षिण:” to herald the coming of Buddha, the Prince of Peace in ललित- firere 6. पालकाप्य mentions वर्धमान कपोत as a "high-flying bird" in हृस्त्यायुर्वेद, 8.58, and we describes a particular method of salutation in which a person after producing a clapping sound with the palms of his hands holds them like the wings of a वर्धमान कपोत :- "खटिका वर्द्धमानेन कपोताख्येन वा पुनः" नाट्यशास्त्र, 28.70 All Pigeons and Doves make a clapping sound at the beginning of a flight, and this is what S. Baker has to say about the Green Imperial Pigeon : "When starting from a tree or suddenly frightened into diverting their course, the wings beat loudly against one another and make a sound audi- ble at a great distance." afer in the sense of "clapping" refers to this sound so that it is incorrect of M. Williams to treat af as a com- pound, must go with as an adjective. The epithet is indicative of the size as well as the auspicious nature of the bird, and as Te is the largest (and auspicious) of all the Green Pigeons, it would appear that the name also refers to these large and beautiful birds. 7. The wild or Blue-Rock Pigeon and similar forms are ¶rd or • कपोत (भुकाकः नीलकपोते"-शब्दार्थचितामणि) 1 and भूमिणय ( M.W.) while the domestic Pigeon of similar or different colours and derived from the wild stock is the of Caraka and the poets : धूपैर्जालविनिःसृतैर्वलभयः संदिग्धपारावताः । बन्धनभ्रष्टो गृहकपोतको बिडालिकालोके पतितः । विक्रमोर्वशीय, 3.2 मालविकाग्निमित्र, 4 The wild Pigeon has been nesting and roosting in high buildings in populous towns as a semi-domesticated bird from very ancient times and has been mentioned under the name of a by Kalidasa and other poets :- तां कस्यांचिद्भवनवलभौ सुप्तपारावतायाम्-मेघदूत, 1.41 Garden set off with white-washed temples, and the latter with the Blue- Rock Pigeons :- 1. The lexical verses for पारावत and कपोत at p. 296 of धन्वन्तरिनिघण्टु have become disjointed and corrupt but the terms and we clearly refer to the colour of the plumage of the Blue Rock Pigeon when on the ground or perching and during flight respectively. When on the wing the bird looks ash-grey chiefly because of the lighter colour of the under-surface of the wings. get of the first verse (56) refers to the semi-wild birds taking possession, as it were, of the various parts of a building. 256 पारावतध्वनिविकूजितचारुशृङ्गः । अभ्रंकषैः सितमनोहरचारुरूपः ॥ मत्स्यपुराण, ch. 180 The blue-grey of their bodies and the iridescent purple of their necks taken together has offered an excellent comparison for the smoke arising out of sacrificial fires : ऋषीणामग्निहोत्रेषु हृतेषु विधिपूर्वकम् । कपोताङ्गारुणो धूमो दृश्यते पवनोद्धतः ।। Birds in Sanskrit Literature रामायण, 2. 119, 6. The behaviour of the cock-bird during courtship has been beautifully described :- स्मरसमरसमयपूरितकम्बुनिभो द्विगुणपीनगलनाल: (पारावतः) सुकान्तकान्तामणितानुकारं, कूजन्तमाघूर्णितरक्तनेत्रम् प्रस्फारितोन्नम्रविनम्रकण्ठं, मुहुर्मुहुर्न्यश्चितचारुपुच्छम् ॥ आर्यासप्तशती, 597 नदत्पारावतैः श्वेतैश्चकोर: कलकोकिलः राजहंसमयूरश्च सदा रम्यः स पर्वतः ॥ 8. Of the Wood-Pigeons the Eastern Wood-Pigeon or Ring-Dove is common in Kashmir and Nepal, and extends into the Punjab in winter. An allied form, the Ashy Wood Pigeon, occurs in Nepal and in Eastern Himalayas. The former wears a broad semi-collar of buff (dull yellow or yellowish-orange) glossed green or purple-copper, and the latter a similar but narrower collar. Sanskrit means a gold crnament or necklace as well as Pigeon or Dove. The bird meant, must, therefore, seem to wear a yellowish collar and this requirement is fulfilled only by these Wood Pigeons and they are probably the रुचफ पारावत. 1. M. Williams and the Medini Kosa. 2. Padma Purana-Uttarakhanda. Ch. 221. 20-21. कुमारसंभव, 9.2. 9. The Snow Pigeon has a dark Grey head and neck, a white collar, light brown upper parts, white lower back, a broad white band on the tail and a pure white breast changing to dove-grey on the abdomen. It appears white when high up on the wing. It is a bird of the higher Himalayas but is found in Kashmir and Nepal. Pilgrims to the Amarnath cave which contains a "frafer" often see these Pigeons, and a pair of them is said actually to live in the Cave itself. They are less shy than most Pigeons and are sometimes trapped in Nepal for the Calcutta market. As the bird. has much white in its plumage and also looks white during flight, the mentioned as a Himalayan bird in the Padma Purana can only be this bird : Pigeons and Doves 257 It is to be noted that the author is referring to wild birds so that the Mayura stands for Mayūra-Kukkuța, the beautiful crested Impeyan Phea- sant or Munal. The place is evidently some lake-country in the Himalayas probably in the Garhawal District which stretches right up to the Mana and Niti passes beyond Gangotri, Badrinath and Kedarnath. C. DOVES 1. Doves are the smaller cousins of the wild Pigeons, lighter in build, more slender in form, and also dressed rather more plainly. They, therefore, go by the name of कपोत, पाण्डुकपोत or simply पाण्डु (cf. पाण्डू colour of natural wool) corresponding to Hindi पंडुक or पड़की Other Hindi names like टुटरू पुग्णी are of an imitative nature recalling the notes of some of them. or 2. The different species of Indian Doves and their Sanskrit names (to be discussed presently) are as under :- (i) the Rufous Turtle Dove कुंकुम-धूम्र कपोत. (ii) the Little Brown Dove- कुंकुम धूम्यकपोत, धूसर कपोत (?) (iii) the Spotted Dove-चित्र चित्रपक्ष-कपोत. (iv) the Ring Dove-धवल, अपांडुर-कपोत; घवलपाण्डु, (v) the Red Turtle Dove- काण, अरुण-कपोत. (vi) the Emerald Dove हारीत शुकच्छवि रक्तकण्ठ-कपोत. (vii) the Bar-tailed Cuckoo-Dove-gure nata. 3. The first four birds are members of the same genus and of these the Rufous Turtle Dove occurs in two forms differentiated as the Northern Indian and the Indian. The former breeds in Central Asia and the i Himalayas as far as Nepal and thence through the lower levels up to Sikkim, while the latter is a bird of Eastern India, and it is only during the cold weather that both forms visit the areas to the south of their respective territories. They are grey-brown suffused with rufous above and vinous rufous below and would therefore share the name of gas with the Little Brown Dove. The Hindi name for the Northern Indian variety emphasizes the rufous or are in the plumage while the name for the other, the Indian Rufous Turtle Dove, stresses the brown (,) in the body colour. As this Dove is neither a permanent. resident of the nor so common about towns or villages it does not find place in the list of birds of augury. 4. The next three Doves, Nos. 2-4, are the commonest and most familiar birds of India. The Indian Little Brown Dove, ettet in Hindi, is again a greyish-brown bird with lilac-pink on head and neck and chestnut to vinous-pink on the breast. "It is typically a bird of civili- zation, exceedingly common all round villages and towns and one of the tamest and most confidential of our Indian birds" (S. Baker in F.B.I.). It is the कुंकुमधूम्परूपोत of भट्टोत्पल and probably also the धूसर कपोत (the grey-brown 258 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Dove) of the lexicons.¹ The Spotted Dove is blackish-brown and spotted white or rufous above and vinaceous-pink below. This also, like the pre- ceding "is a most tame and confiding little bird, running about freely in gardens and villages...generally hunting in couples and constantly calling to one another in the softest and sweetest of coos" (Ibid.). It passes as चितरोख in Hindi and is the चित्रपोत or चित्रपक्ष कपोत of the lexicons and literature. The fourth and the last of the series is the Ring-Dove, the lightest coloured member of the group, being lilac-grey on the head and neck, fawn-brown on the back and lilac to pale dove-grey on the breast. Some white on the tail and the silver-grey and greyish-white of the flanks, axillaries and under wing-coverts give the bird, when on the wing, a whitish look. It is धौर- or धौला-पंडुक in Hindi corresponding to in Sanskrit. Like the other two it also "haunts the vicinity of humanity and is most common in cultivated country round villages and towns, freely entering gardens" (Ibid.). 5. These three Doves of towns and villages (Nos. 2-4) have been men- tioned as birds of omen (कपोता: त्रयः) in अग्निपुराण, 231, बृहत्संहिता, 87, 1 and , p. 247 though the relevant text in the last appears to be incom- plete. Nevertheless it refers to the fair , i.e. three different Doves, viz. the farge, the particularly whitish, the fa, spotted or variegated, and the , the brown. This agrees very well with Bhaṭṭotpala's commentary on the बृहत्संहिता where he enumerates the three species as आपाण्डुर, चित्र-and -. These names belong respectivly to the Ring-Dove, the Spotted Dove and the Little Brown Dove. 6. All the races of the first three species listed above have chequered black patches on either side of or behind the neck and are comprised as miniature or half-pigeons within the lexical equation अर्धपारावतश्चितकण्ठे–मेदिनी, , etc. (cf. 'Half-Snipe' for a small Snipe). The Ring-Dove, on the other hand wears a semi-collar of black edged white both above and below and is therefore the art of the lexicons. The Red Turtle. Dove also has a black semi-collar behind the neck and it must share the epithet. Other names for the Ring Dove are धवल पाण्डु and धवल-कपोत (see below). 7. So far we have dealt with names based upon the colour of the plumage but some of these birds have also been classified according to the nature of their call notes. Thus the Spotted Dove with a confluent or rippling call-a guttural 'croo' repeated several times in quick succession, is classed as the कलध्वनि type and the Ring Dove (घवल कपोत) with its distinct triple "coo" call is a graft type of Dove; cf. è or eais (èu separation of syllables; interruption-M.W.) as a synonym for शब्दकल्पद्रुम धन्वन्तरि has the following : andra in 1. "धूसरो धूम्रलोचन:"- राजनिषंदू, सिहादिवर्ग, 198. The adnoun er is descriptive of a donkey and camel as well; but see para. 8 below. 2. The Little Brown Dove with the call "Cru-do-do-do-do" would also belong to this type. Pigeons and Doves qrugeg fafaut sa: feracer: arrafe: 1 द्वितीयो धवलः प्रोक्तः स कपोतः स्फुटध्वनिः ॥ 259 A third type, the includes the next bird. 8. In the Red Turtle Dove () alone are the sexes differently coloured. The male is a warm vinous-red and the female brown. The chin and throat of the male are albescent contrasting with the dark ashy-grey head and the vinous-red breast. The eyes vary from hazel-brown to dark brown. Both have a black semi-collar on the hind neck which naturally attracts the adnoun is for this species as well. The call is a distinctive, "rolling groo--gurr-goo repeated four or five times quickly" (Salim Ali). aft notes the call and the colour of the eyes of this Dove as under:- "कपोतोऽन्यो धूघूकद् धूम्रलोचन:"p. 296. It is possible that the brown female was looked upon as a different species and the equation, धूसरो धूम्प्रलोचन:, of राजनिघंटु, सिंहादिवर्ष, 138 refers to her as the धूसर कपोत. Being the smallest of the Doves it is the काणकपोत of चरक, 1.25.37-38 and सुश्रुत, 1.46.69. चक्रपाणिदत्त on the former explains the adjective काण (fr. कण little, small) as अल्पार्थवाची while डल्हणाचार्य on the latter renders the name as a which has been adopted by K.M. Vaidya in his r The name अरुण कपोत corresponds to the bird's Hindi names इंटिया धूपू (इंट a brick; the brick-red Dove) and (the rose-coloured Dove). It is widely distributed in the country and is very numerous in the North-west but being a shy bird it keeps to well-wooded areas. 9. The male of the beautiful Emerald Dove or gra has a blue-grey head, metallic emerald-green upper parts and deep vinous-red neck, shoulders and breast. The female has the head also vinous-red. Even for a Dove it is rather a small bird, being only 10 inches in total length (i.e. only one inch longer than the Red Turtle Dove). It is found throughout the greater part of India including Kashmir and Nepal in forest country with a sufficient rainfall. These pretty birds are very terrestrial in their habits and are therefore, very active on the ground and frequent damp footpaths in evergreen forests. Like the entire Pigeon family they are fully. vegetarian except for termites which they eat greedily. Another Dove which shares this habit is the Spotted Dove. "Their flight...is extremely swift, and at the same time wonderfully silent, and it is often quite startling the way these birds flit into sight and then disappear without a sound, twisting and turning so as to avoid bushes and other obstacles in their flight. Invariably they keep low down, and it is rare to see them rise twenty feet from the ground even when they dash across some opening in forest"... (S. Baker). They are not gregarious, but in some favourite spots half a dozen or more may sometimes be met with. "It has a curious habit of entering and passing through buildings, which, doubtless, it hopes will afford refuge from the glare of the sun; but finding the interior so different from what it expects, it passes straight through instead of resting." 260 Birds in Sanskrit Literature (S. Baker). Other writers also have remarked upon this curious habit of the bird. Its note "is a soft but very deep and rather plaintive 'coo', and during the breeding season they may often be heard calling to one another. for some minutes together" (Ibid). This agrees fairly well with Varāha- mihira's description of the bird's call : "हारीतस्य तु शब्दो गुग्गुः:" बृहत्संहिता, 87.15. The voice of Green Pigeons on the other hand, is, “a very pleasing full. toned rolling whistle. " This bird is रक्तकण्ठ कपोत as well as हारीत, the latter being apparently due to its green wings. It has also been called अरुणकपोत by भास्कर on वाग्मट, though the name properly belongs to the Red Turtle Dove. 10. Green Pigeons are purely arboreal birds and do not descend to the ground except at the water's edge to drink, or at a salt-lick, whereas the Emerald Dove is very terrestrial picking up seeds and berries, etc. from the ground and from low bushes. God Siva describes the beauties of an extensive garden in काशी and refers to a group of Emerald Doves ("हारीत वृन्द") walking here and there along the garden path :- "हंसानां पक्षपातप्रचलितकमलस्वच्छविस्तीर्णतोयं तोयानां तीरजातप्रविकचकदलीवाटनृत्यन्मयूरम् । मायूरैः पक्षचन्द्रैः क्वचिदपि पतितै रज्जितं क्षमाप्रदेशं देशे देशे विकीर्णप्रमुदितविलसन्मत्तहारीतवृन्दम् ॥” 11. The Bar-tailed Cuckoo Dove of Kashmir and Nepal goes by the Hindi name of दुसाल ("तुषार कपोत, a Dove of the cold region). “Its deep boom- ing 'Coo' calls one's attention from far away, and when the bird is finally located it is almost certain to be seated high up on some tree which stands well above those surrounding it" (S. Baker ). A bird of such striking manners, different from others of its kind, would naturally invite attention and it is highly probable that the name कु-रव कपोत (having a distinct "coo" note) for a kind of Dove' (M.W.) is for this particular bird (Cf. कलध्वनि for the Spotted and स्फुटध्वनि for the Ring Dove) 2. It is further permissible to say that the 'back-formation', तुषारकपोत, was also its name in Sanskrit. 12. In conclusion, an attempt must be made to determine the identity of the particular kind of कपोत which from the time of the Rgveda has been regarded as the messenger of Death and Misery, and otherwise a bird of ill-omen along with the hooting owl : 1. Matsya Purána, ch. 180. This verse occurs in a slightly corrupt form in the Linga Purápa, 92.24. चरक 1.26.81 (Chowkhamba edition; 1.26.86 in others) mentions हारिद्रक, the Green Pigeon and हारीतक, the Emerald Dove. The Lahore edition. reads हारिद्रक at both places in the same section which is incorrect. 2. Cf. also कण्ठीव Pigeon and कु-रवक, the Tree-pic. Pigeons and Doves यदुलूको बदति मोघमेतद् यत्कपोतः पदमग्नौ कृणोति । यस्य दूतः प्रहित एष एतत् तस्मै यमाय नमो अस्तु मृत्यवे ॥ ऋग्वेद 10.165.4. The hooting owl, again, is held to be as bad as the कपोत, the messenger of Death :- मृत्युद्गतः कपोतोऽयमुलूकः कम्पयन्मनः । प्रत्युलूकश्च कुह्वान अनिद्रौ शून्यमिच्छतः ॥ भागवत, 1.14.14. This verse, it will be noticed, is a clear echo of the one from Rgveda. The allocation of inauspicious birds between Gods and others ( सुरासुराः) is as below :- श्येनं जग्राह मृत्युश्च, काकं कालो गृहीतवान् । उलूकं निर्ऋतिश्चैव जग्राहातिभयावहम् ।। गृधं व्याधिस्तदीशोऽथ, कपोतं च स्वयं यमः ॥ 261 मार्क. पु. 48.68-69. It will be noticed that the Owl and कपोत have been distributed exactly in accordance with the Vedic tradition. With "गृहे पारावता: धन्या:" in favour of the Blue Rock Pigeon and the habit of the Spotted and the Little Brown Doves of frequently nesting inside human habitations it is evident that these birds cannot be the calamitous रूपोत, nor should the Rufous Turtle Dove, the Red Turtle Dove or even the Ring Dove be that bird as they keep away from inhabited houses. According to the commentator of the आश्वलायन गृह्यसूल, however, it is apparently the Ring Dove (Dhavala Kapota) which, we shall see, is incorrect :- कपोतश्चेदगारमुपहन्यादनुपतेद्वा- "देवाः कपोतः" इति प्रत्यूचं जुहुयाज्जपेद्वा- -3.7.7 Commentary-"पोतो रक्तपादः शुक्लवर्णोऽरण्यवासी" As against this शौनक specifies the Emerald Dove as the guilty bird: कपोतं विशेषयति शौनकः - रक्तपादः कपोताख्यः अरण्यौकाः शुकच्छवि: । स चेच्छालां विशेत् शालासमीपं च प्रजेद् यदि ॥ अन्येषु गृहमध्ये वा वल्मीकस्योद्गमादिषु ।। The description of the Kapota as "शकच्छवि" (of the colour of a Parrot) and the attraction it has for the termite ant-hill ( बल्मीक) combined with its habit of occasionally entering human dwellings leaves no doubt what- ever that the bird meant by शौनक is the Emerald Dove. The habits of the bird described earlier fully confirm the identification. It may be 1. Quoted in Sabdakalpadruma under "अद्भुतम्" Birds in Sanskrit Literature added that small Indian houses with a room set apart in them for worship. of the sacrificial fire were not as open and spacious as modern bungalows which the Dove is known to enter at one end and pass out at the other without nesting so that once the bird entered the house or the sacrificial chamber, it would flounder and be forced to settle down somewhere... even near the fire-altar ("यत्कपोतः पदमग्नौ कृणोति) though it might ultimately escape. Its low and fast but noiseless flight like that of an Owl at night was rightly regarded as typical of a secret messenger. With the clear authority of a before us it is easy to see that correct reading of the commentary on the आश्वलायन सूत्र is “शुकवर्ण" and not "शुक्लवर्ण" and both, therefore, agree as to the identity of the offending bird. Additional evidence in support of the above identification is found in the fragra where the रक्तकण्ठ कपोत is placed in the list birds and animals whose entry into a dwelling is considered ominous:- 262 द्रोणकाको बकश्चैव, उलूकद्वयमेव च । रक्तकण्ठः कपोतश्च, व्याघ्र एणश्च वा विशेत् ॥ 2.10.140. With its maroon-red neck and breast and bright green wings the Emerald Dove is both रक्तकण्ठ (रक्तग्रीव- M.W.) and शुरुच्छवि. It shares of course, red legs and feet with all other Doves. 13. The bird, as it happens, possesses a good deal of red in its dress and would thus seem to have some esoteric affinity with fire. The wit whose form god af was compelled to assume to pick up the 'seed' of the god Śiva out of which was ultimately born should be this Dove:- अग्निर्भूत्वा कपोतो हि प्रेरितः सर्वनिर्जरैः । अभक्षच्छांभवं वीर्य चञ्च्वा तु निखिलं तदा ॥ शिवपुराण IV. 2.158,32-35. The Matsya Purana (158, 32-35) has a different version according to which Agni acted similarly but in the shape of a parrot. Here the green colour of the bird is significant, and the author of the Purana seems to have interpreted grea or off of some other Manuscipt as a Parrot, for in other versions the bird is a we only. Again, the-form taken by Agni at the instance of Indra, who, became a Falcon, to test the moral virtue of fre and fafe would seem to be this low flying Dove which by landing itself into the lap of the two kings put them in great difficulty (i.e. निति) 1. In yet another 'श्येन-कपोत' story with king बुषदर्भ-उशीनर as the protector of t, Agni and Indra do not figure but the ta is described. as a beautiful bird with blue head which must be assumed to be in effective contrast with the body-plumage: नवनीलोत्पलापीड चारुवर्ण सुदर्शन !-महाभारत, 3.32,7 1. Mahabharata. III. Ch. 131 and 197. Pigeons and Doves 263 Our Dove has a blue-grey head and beautiful plumage and the above description fits it all right. The stories from the Mahabharata and the Siva Purana referred to above clearly help to connect this Dove with the following synonymy for a kind of Kapota:- अमङ्गल्यः स भवति द्विजो यस्तु यभो यतः ( ? यमो यतः ) दहनोऽग्निसहायश्च भीषणो गृहनाशनः ॥ i.e. the bird which is under the control (a) of Yama is inauspicious and is named 'fire' (i.e. destructive like fire), 'associate of Fire-god', 'fearful' and the 'house-destroyer'-all which is rather hard upon the pretty little Dove. All considered, therefore, the malignant bird of the Rgveda, Vajasaneyi Samhita and later literature is the Emerald Dove. 14. Several Doves, and particularly the Spotted Dove mate for life and always go about in pairs. Stuart Baker who closely watched a pair of Spotted Doves regularly nesting in his verandah, describes them as "a most loving little couple", the cock-bird "very attentive to his little wife, often taking her up special dainties from the table below." It is indeed, a pleasant surprise to find that the physical features and habits of these birds had been carefully observed by the ancients more than 2,000 years ago. This is proved by the touching story of a pair of Doves purposely made very human and circumstantial in the telling, narrated in the Mahābhārata. They are described as चिवतनूह (चित्रपक्ष) and framg (Cf.fr) and as a greatly devoted couple. The characteri- stic description of the bird's eye furnishes a most helpful clue to its identity: यदि सा रक्तनेवान्ता चिवाङ्गी मधुरस्वरा । अद्य नायाति मे कान्ता न कार्य जीवितेन मे ॥ The eyelids and the narrow bare orbital skin of the Spotted Dove are red (ar) and no other Indian Dove has this feature. Evidently the heroes of the story are a pair of Spotted Doves, held up as a model of conjugal fidelity for erring humanity. In the Western world, too, the Turtle Doves are "the time-honoured emblem of tenderness and conjugal love." 15. The कपोत, in हर्षचरितम् 19.61 beginning- "दाक्षीपुत्रस्य तंत्रे ध्रुवमयमभवत् कोप्यधीती कपोतः” is the Indian Red Turtle Dove (Para. 8 above). Brahman boys at a Grammar School memorized the Sütras of Pånini by constant 1. gafe p. 296, tag, 138, Bhattacharya's edition (1899). Calcutta; कल्पड, p. 332. This seems to have been the original verse in some older lexicon but it has been corrupted and split up in the later compilations as in the current editions of safe, राजनिषष्ट्र] and कल्पनुकोश. 2. Mahabharata, Santiparvan, chapters 143-149. 3. Ibid., 144, 7. Birds in Sanskrit Literature repetition and at the close of the day's lesson applied a little chalk to their throats to ensure a good memory. The male Red Turtle, the , repeats his groo-gurr-goo's every morning and has besides a whitish throat. also means a Brahman who is ready to repeat the Sütras at call and this seems to have stimulated the poet's fancy. Describing a morning scene he refers to the male Dove's repetitive call, and humorously suggests that he would not keep on calling! (the घुसंज्ञा सूत्र–काशिका, 1.1.20) unless he had attended a class of Paninian grammar. His whitish throat, as if marked with chalk, is additional proof of the statement ! 264 54 SAND GROUSE 1. Sand-Grouse occupies an intermediate position between the Pigeons and the Partridges. This fact has been recognised in their Hindi name, aftarx (fr. wz, 'a fighter, fafere, a Partridge) as all Sand-Grouses are known to be pugnacious among themselves; cf. we gege for a fighting Cock in Art. 55-B, para 1. The Common Sand-Grouse is known in North India as काकर (having a harsh call) which is apparently the same as ककर of बाज संहिताः “ककराञ्छिशिराय, विककरान् हेमन्ताय"- 24, 20 विककर (विशिष्ट ककर) would then be a different species of Sand Grouse possessing some particular character, e.g. a distinctive plumage or a strik- ing colour-pattern, and the Painted Sand-Grouse, beautifully marked with a triple band of white-black-white on the forehead and a tri-colour gorget of chestnut, buff and black on the breast, should be the fa. Large numbers of Sand-Grouse of different kinds visit North-West India, a number spreading further to the east, in the cold season, and this explains the allocation of these birds to the personified deities of Winter-months. 2. The definition of we by fi qnoted in the artis "पीतः कृष्णगल: कृष्णचव चरण: रक्तपृष्ठ:" This can only apply to the Large Imperial Sand-Grouse which visits North India in large numbers in winter. It has a good deal of pale and rich buff in its plumage including some yellow, a black patch on the lower throat, and bluish or plumbeous grey bill and feet. At any rate is not a Partridge according to this authority. The synonymy" ऋकरकूकणौ समो" –अमर, , etc. would, therefore, seem to refer to these birds as allied to the Partridge, but as their exact identity had been forgotten lexicographers rendered the names as a Partridge, more specially the Swamp Partridge (कुतितिर- Prakrit, कायर) which, however, is incorrect; see Art. 55-C. वसन्तराज on the other hand mentions कर as different from कृष्णतित्तिरि वृत्ततित्तिरि (Swamp Partridge, Art. 55-C, 9), and fefefe- "कृष्णतित्तिरिरितीह पतवी, वृत्ततित्तिरिरिति प्रथितो यः । यश्च पक्षिषु मतोऽधिपमल्लो, गौरतित्तिरिसमः शकुनेन । खगोऽव यो लावकनामधेयः खगौ चकोरककराभिधानौ" । 8.30-31 Birds in Sanskrit Literature सुश्रुत too mentions कर as different from तित्तिर, कपिज्जल and कुतित्तिर and पालकाप्य,, p. 569, has कर with कपिज्जल and तित्तिर, कर is therefore the same as Vedic, and the terms and are merely phonetic variants of the later for a Sand-Grouse. They are all after the call notes of the birds syllabified as Katarr Katarr, ka ka, etc. 3. The pugnacious nature of Sand-Grouse was taken advantage of by the ancients who trapped the birds by enticing them to fight with a decoy called दीपक कक्कर (कक्कर जातक, No. 209). दीपक तित्तिर is mentioned in , No. 404 and other stories, which again shows that and fafer are different. 4. is either for a bird-form allied to, a Sand-Grouse or just a variant of it. मार्कण्डेय पुराण, 15, 26 reads for कुल in the following half verse which it otherwise shares with महाभारत, 13.111,104 :– “पत्रोणं चोरयित्वा तु कलत्वं निगच्छति" made from it'? the soft downy for shoes lined with Does a mean 'feather-wool or down and articles Buddhist literature mentions articles of dress made from feathers of Owls, and the Pali Dictionary has such feathers; and af for other things, probably gloves, etc., and even bigger items, cf. “"उलूक पत्तानि गंयेत्वा कत निवासनं", while हंसतूल is often mentioned in Sanskrit literature. The materials recommended in सुश्रुत, सूत्रस्थान, 18, 16 for dressing and bandaging surgical cases include a with linen, cotton, wool, fine cotton, silk (u), etc. but the notes of uncertainty about the exact nature of Tai, and the synonyms ata (washed or white Kosa-silk) in are not convincing. If fore, ai is 'feather wool', a very plausible identification of bird-name offers itself with reference to the punishment for theft of articles of dress made from that material provided in the above verse. They were apparently needed for wear in the extreme cold climate prevailing at places like Leh, Ladakh, etc. in Kashmir and Tibet in and across the Himalayas. The idea, therefore, seems to be that a person, who deprives another of this special kind of protective clothing, should be made to suffer the same inconvenience by being reborn in conditions of extreme rigour. Now the Tibetar. Sand-Grouse is not a migratory bird and spends indicate and there- as a 266 1. and for 'Ardea Virgo' in M. Williams seem to be mistakes. 2. The श्योनाक tree is rendered as Tor सोनापाठा in Hindi. It is described in detail in ft TT under the name or but there is no mention of any woolly or hairy stuff obtained from it. It belongs to the order Bignoniaceae and no member of this order produces any cotton or similar stuff in India. The seeds are light and have their wings (See Indian Trees by D. Brandis). They are used for lining present-day Sola hats and were probably used to stuff cushions in ancient times-heuce the name from a bag. The buds of certain trees in this order are curved and hence the name . The flowers of some e.g. of genus stereospermum, are thinly hairy or pubescent and the name at probably refers to this character. It is highly doubtful if such flowers could be used for dressing wounds. The meaning of tof as feather wool has been lost. Sand-Grouse 267 the winter also on the snows, and is known as 'kaklingma or kakali' (fr or ) in Tibet. These names are very close to Sanskrit and and it is highly probable that the Buddhists of Tibet borrowed from Sanskrit and made it into; or it may be that underwent the change into eft and travelled back as to India for the Tibetan Sand Grouse. would thus be an original or borrowed name for the bird which fits in very well with the idea underlying the above verse. Incidentally, it also helps to confirm the identification of and with the Sand- Grouse of India. Chakor figure among 5. The Common Indian Sand-Grouse (t) the fowl served at a bacchanalian feast held by Ravana the end of which was witnessed by Hanuman when, in search of Sīta, he passed through the various halls of the palace : "ऋकरान् विविधान्सिद्धांश्चकोरानर्द्धभक्षितान् ॥ Rāmāyaṇa (Alld. edition) 5. 11,17. The Bombay edition of the Rāmāyaṇa has a different reading with for कर 55 PEAFOWLS, JUNGLEFOWLS, PHEASANTS, AND QUAILS 1. This family includes all birds properly classified by authorities like चरक and सुश्रुत as 'विफिस, though the partial lists of such birds given by them include just a few which according to the present-day scientific classifica- tion are outside the order Gallinae but which, from their habit of frequen- ting the ground either for food or otherwise appeared to belong to the 'faf group. For example the list in includes the effe, the Short-toed Rufous Lark, and, the Adjutant Stork, the former of which somewhat resembles the Quail in its habits and the latter seeks its food from refuse heaps like the Common Cock; also, the Great Bustard, and are, the Little Bustard ground birds of Order Grallae which look somewhat like a Peacock without the train. g includes , the Nightjar, arife, the Short-toed Rufous Lark, fag, the Magpie Robin and Blackbird, er, the Little Bustard, and as the Laughing Thrushes and Babblers. The Nightjar keeps to the ground during day-time and the others find their food chiefly on the ground. Subject to these exceptions the lists are fairly representative of the Gallinaceous birds of India. 2. अभिधानचिन्तामणि gives शिखण्डिक and चर्मंचूड in the lists of names for a Cock, and fit and others have fit and firavet for both Cock and Peacock. firfers and first (both meaning 'one having a crest') are best interpreted with reference to the synonymy for first- "चूडा केशी केशपाशी शिखा शिखण्डिका समाः" -हेमचन्द्र Both the terms thus clearly apply to the Peacock and such Cocks as have a feathery crest contrasting with the Common Cock and Jungle-fowl who have a fleshy comb and are therefore the चर्मचूड कुक्कुट strictly so called. शिथी e are, therefore, the Cheer and Kalij Pheasants as a group as they have feathery crests. For the same reason the Peacock is शिखी, शिखावल, etc., and the Monal is शिखी and more specifically मयूरक or मयूर कुक्कुट सुश्रुत has observed the distinction by naming मयूर कुनकुट, and यवालक (the White-crested Kalij) as representing three different types separately, and in a similar way names बहीं (Peacock), कुक्कुट, इन्द्राभ (Monal) and रक्तवक (the Cheer and Kalij Pheasants) as a group as they have red skin surrounding only the eyes which distinguishes them from the Junglefowls which have the whole face Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails Pavoninae Argusianinae Phasianinae Perdicinae Turmicidae Peacook- Peacook Pheasant कुक्कुटा. तित्तिरवर्तकादयः जीवजीवकः लावा: Phasianinae -कुक्कुटा: चर्मचूडाः ताम्रडाः Red Jungle- fowl बादर कुनकुट Perdicinae -farfera:- Phasianidae-faferer: -वर्तका: True Quails असितापा रक्तवत्मक Grey Jungle Impeyan Pheasant 1. cheerPheasant- fowl कुक्कुट 2. Kokras ,पालाश इन्द्राभ कुक्कुट, यवग्रीव कुक्कुट मयूर कुक्कुट, सुवर्ण मयूर, -लावाः Bustard and Button Quails farferat: I कुक्कुट 3. White-crested kalij यवालक कुक्कुट 4. Nepal kalij Horned Pheasants वर्कर, वल्गु-शकुन. Crimson Horned Pheasant-पुष्प शकुन -Blood-Pheasant- -Mountain Quail- गिरिवतिका - Red Spur-fowl-सीरपादकुनकुट, -Bush- कोणालक कुक्कुट 5. Black breasted kalij मदराग कुक्कुट -Black Partridge-fafere, farfere - Grey Partridge-गौर तित्तिर, कपिज्जल -Swamp Partridge-fafer - Hill Partridge प्रियेश्वर तित्तिर -Chukor चकोर See-see Partridge-344* -Himalayan Snow-Cock-afes farfere (--Snow Partridge- ककुभ तित्तिर [-Grey Quail – वर्तक Quails -[वर्तीर, अल्प Blue breasted Quail afre (Black-breasted Quail 269 Rock Bush Quail पांसुललाव कपिजल LJungle BQगैरकलाव | accord- लावा: ing to later classi- fica- tion [Bustard Quails-दर्भर लाव (-Button Quails-पौण्डकलाव 270 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and head covered with bare red skin and hence described as an (red- faced) in बृहत्संहिता, 62, 1.1 The महाव्युत्पत्ति, 213 mentions मयूर for the Monal, वहीं for the Peacock, first for the crested Pheasants, for the Peacock Pheasant, andकुट for the Common or Junglefowl. पद्मपुराण mentions कुक्कुट, शिखी (शिखिनः, crested Pheasants) and मयूर but permits only the last as food. fort, and (crested Pheasants, Peacock and Cock respectively) are mentioned in three consecutive paragraphs of चरकसंहिता 3. f, as we shall see, is strictly the Peacock Pheasant but the later Purāņa literature seems to have grouped all the Himalayan Pheasants, principally those that occur in the Central and Western Himalayas as offenfa (the Pheasant-tribe):- मत्तक्रौञ्चमयूराणां नादैरुपघुष्टकन्दरे । जीवजीवकजातीनां वी-रुद्भिरुपशोभिते ॥ वायुपुराण, 54,33. ब्रह्माण्डपुराण, 1.25, 28. जीवञ्जीवकजातीनां विरावैरुपकूजिते । चातकैः प्रियपुवैश्च जीवञ्जीवकजातिभिः । ब्रह्मपुराण, 68, 16 The common name for all Partridges is fafere and for all Quails afar though quite a number of well marked species in both the groups have specific names in Sanskrit. These will be given under each group of birds. A. PEAFOWL India has only one variety of Peafowl within its limits but it also happens to be the most beautiful and gorgeous looking bird and, what is more, it is readily tamed. For these reasons the Peacock has been a favo- urite with the people, and the poets have given him a permanent place in literature, singing of his love for the clouds, his beauty and sonorous cries (sonorous by contrast with the thundering of rain-clouds), and the grace- ful dance with "the train expanded into a gorgeous fan" in which the bird proudly indulges during courtship and at other times to express his shear joy of living. No wonder, therefore, that such a popular bird should have been given many poetic names in addition to the common one of ' Only a few of them may be mentioned: waffe (enemy or eater of snakes); नीलकण्ठ (blue-necked); सारङ्ग (variegated or painted); राजसारस (the shining crane-like bird); a (shining, but if taken in the sense of 'white' the 2. anferere, Ch. 56, 31-38. 3. fafara Ch. 12., 38-40, 1. Similarly the term are distinguishes the wild Cock with a red fleshy crest from the others having a feathery crest. Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails name may refer to an albino form of the white Peacock imported from China); far (having the orbital skin of a white colour); and fireft (having a crest). He has also been called age to distinguish it from or 'the little Peacock', the Impeyan Pheasant or Monal:- "महामयूराञ्जयति स्वरेण बलेन नागान्तुरगाञ्जवेन ।" –भेलसंहिता' The snake-eating habit of the Peacock, implying the power of destroying snake-poison, has been referred to in the "fafan" of the Rgveda ("विसप्त मयूर्य:" etc.). Like the Flamingoes flying high, in formation (बलाकपंक्ति) and the birds calling from the tree tops, the Peacocks also have a permanent association with rain-clouds. Dancing to their mates in open forest glades, they add a peculiar charm to forest scenery :- "घनानां शऋचापेन वनानां शिखिताण्डवैः । परस्परप्रभापुञ्जस्पर्धेव समजायत ।।” “क्वचित्प्रनृत्तैः क्वचिदुन्नदद्भिः क्वचिच्च वृक्षाग्रनिषण्णकायैः । व्यालम्बबर्हाभरणमयूरः -भारतमञ्जरी 271 बनेषु सङगीतमिव प्रवृत्तम्" ॥ - रामायण B. JUNGLEFOWLS AND PHEASANTS Two kinds of Junglefowl, y or , occur in India, the Red and the Grey. The former is common throughout the lower Himalayas and the Gangetic plain, and the latter in the Peninsula and as far north and west as Mt. Aboo. This last has been a celebrated place of pilgrimage for ages and is repeatedly mentioned in the Puraņas. The Indo-Aryans, therefore, must have known and named both the varieties of wild Cock. The Cock has also been domesticated in India from time immemorial (See AV. 5.31.2) and several colour types of it including the red and the grey have been mentioned in the बृहत्संहिताः- “यवग्रीवो यो वा बदरसदृशो वाऽपि विगो" - 62.2. Cock-fighting too was very popular and one such fight is described in the agarafa, where the combatant birds are described as fefe, and 1. P. 170, 232. The हारीतसंहिता, Ch. 11, मांसवर्ग, also mentions नील मयूर and मयूरक 2. 1.191.14. 3. हरिवंश 570. 4. 4.28.37. Birds in Sanskrit Literature arerfa. The first is evidently the common domestic fowl, but the second, as its descriptive name shows, is the Ascel type of Game-Cock which too is a very ancient Indian breed. The name fa signifies a long-necked and long-legged bird which the Ascel certainly is and calls it wegage (fighting Cock):- 272 “यत्क्लीबभंटकुक्कुटोत्कटरणक्रीडा समादिश्यते । •यन्मूखः सुखलीलया कविशुकालापश्चिरं चयंते ॥” It is doubtful whether the Aseel is a descendant of a larger wild species now extinct (Gallus giganteus of Temminck) or was evolved by selection from the existing Red Junglefowl. Probably it was imported very early into India from the Malay country. Anyway, the Common Cock has been a great favourite with the Indo-Aryans and no royal house-hold was without its Fowl-run, and even the Army carried a complement of Cocks during campaigns to strike the early hour, as it were, for everybody to get ready in time for the day's march or action. The very best birds were selected for breeding and their good points have been briefly stated by ff in his far, and what he says good humouredly and rather affectionately about a good hen would be welcomed as a flattering compliment by any pretty young lady proud of her charms:-- "कुक्कुटी च मृदुचारुभाषिणी स्निग्धमूर्तिरुचिराननेक्षणा " - चतुर्वर्ग संग्रह -- 62.3. 2. Returning to the Junglefowl, adnouns like चर्मचूड, ताम्रचूड, चरणायुध, विष्किर कालज्ञ, मणिकण्ठ, etc. would be common to both varieties of it, and if the colour epithets given above used in ifgar are taken over, the Red bird would be the बादर कुक्कुट and the Grey bird, यवग्रीव कक्कुट Apart from the differences in colour-pattern, however, the two can be told apart from their voices. The call of the Red Junglefowl resembles that of tame birds. except for the concluding note of the Cock which is shorter. The Crow of the Grey Junglefowl on the other hand is quite distinct-"a broken and imperfect kind of crow quite unlike the call of the Red Junglefowl" (Jerdon). Now and are two names for the Common Cock and they evi- dently signify a bird with a full voice (graf). As against these, there is for a kind of bird' which is probably the Grey Junglefowl. If 50, पूर्णक कुक्कुट and स्वरभङ्गी कुक्कुट would be the most fitting names for the 1. 2.3 (Kavyamála Pt. 5). 2. p. 239 et seq. describes in detail the various kinds of domestic cocks, their maintenance, and training for the arena. It mentions the Aseel as age and it is interesting to note that this particular Cock is still known as "r" in cock-fighting circles of Nagpur, Maharashtra, 2. See, qof in M. Williams. Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 273 two varieties of Junglefowl found in India. The great esteem in which the Cock was held by the Indo-Aryans may be seen from the epithet of fo (honey-tongued) applied to it in the war with reference to its announcing the time for the morning sacrifice. 3. The Red Junglefowl is mentioned in literature under the names वनकुक्कुट, कृरुवाकु (imitative name ?), ताम्रचूड etc. The name शूलिक refers to its long and sharp spurs and it is possible that names like शूर, मूलिक, शौण्ड, दक्ष and particularly are (and i.c. tall or standing erect) are meant for the fighting or Game-Cock known as in Hindi. Of a thinner build to look at, it is all muscle and a very popular bird, for cock-fights. Like the Peafowl the Cock too has numerous names in Sanskrit and they are mostly self-explanatory. would seem to be a left-handed proud strutting gait-a petty bird attempting to play the Peacock. The Rāmāyaṇa mentions the Junglefowl in its natural haunts:- (petty Peacock) for the domestic Cock compliment to its gaudy plumage and “लताकष्टकसद्ध कीर्णा: कृकवाकूपनादिताः निरपाश्च सुदुर्गाश्च मार्गा दुःखमतो वनम् ।" 2.28.10. It is incorrect to translate in this passage as the Peacock. 4. The Bhutan Peacock-Pheasant has the upper plumage light buffy- brown: the feathers of the mantle, almost all the wing-coverts and the inner secondaries have violet green-blue ocelli at their tips, each ocellus sur- rounded with a narrow brownish black band and a second broader one of white; and similar but larger and oval ocelli on the tail feathers. "The display of this Pheasant is very beautiful, both wings being fully expanded with tail, so that the whole looks like an ocellated fan. The wide tail is used as a screen for the young who move about under its shelter close to the heels of the parent" (Smythies). A fuller and graphic account of the display of this Pheasant is given by Stuart Baker in his Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon (3.117). In a small open space the pair "scr- atched about for insects and then, without a moment's warning, the Cock- bird began to display to the hen. At first he confined his attention to running round her with tail partially extended and slightly raised and both wings drooping and spread. In a minute or two, however, he ceased to run round and sank slowly to the ground until his breast rested on it. His tail and wings were then raised until the three were fully spread in the manner of a fan, the tips of the inner secondaries of the wings almost meeting above and in front of the tail, whilst the shoulders were brought down to the ground. The head was then withdrawn momentarily into the soft mass of feathers, but immediately protruded again on the hen moving". 5. The short extract from Smythies is sufficient identify the bird with the Sanskrit बीजन ( a fan ) for a kind of Pheasant and जीवजीवक (v.I. 1. 1.1.4.18. 2. See abo वाज० संहिता I.16. 274 Birds in Sanskrit Literature जीवजीवक) defined as " मयूरतुल्यपतक", i.e., having ocelli in the plumage like the Peacock, by in his notes on . The second name is from the hen-bird's habit of protecting her young under her tail when out feeding. ga refers to the effect of smoke issuing from poisoned food placed on fire on the re and this Pheasant and advises a king to keep them for testing his food:- "चकोरस्याक्षि वैराग्यं जायते क्षिप्रमेव तु ... fara aftaufferent. सन्निकृष्टांस्ततः कुर्याद्राज्ञस्तान् मृगपक्षिण: ' The belief has been referred to in 2 and in a where several other birds also are included. Despite the difference maintained in g and later lexicons like far and fat make the name applicable to चकोर, (“जीवज्जीवश्वकोरे न") apparently because चकोर like the other, helps to save life: Cf.” “प्राणदोऽपि जीवकः "– शाश्वतकोश, 6. The Peacock Pheasants are frequently mentioned with other birds in descriptions of Himalayan scenery, e.g. the tree-perching habit of these birds has been correctly referred to: "रक्तपीतारुणाः पार्थ पादपाग्रगताः खगाः । परस्परमुदीक्षन्ते बहवो जीवजीविकाः ॥” The hermitage of दधीचि:- - महाभारत, 3.159.87-88 "षट्पदोद्गीतनिनदैविघुष्टं सामगैरपि । पुस्कोकिलरवोन्मिश्रं जीवजीवकनादितम् ॥” महाभारत, 3.101.14. A pair of pet birds are described as perching the top of rock in a garden in the कादम्बरी “विषमशिलाच्छेदोपविष्टजीवञ्जीवकयुगल ..." p. 97. The picture of the Peacock Pheasant drawn by a to illustrate a moral in based on actual observation of the Cock-bird's display before the hen, is simply unique and fully bears out what Stuart Baker says about it: 1. कल्पस्थान, 1.30-33. 2. 6.23.108. "अवशः खलु काममूर्छया प्रियया श्येनभयाद्विनाकृतः । न धृति समुपैति न ह्रियं करुणं जीवति जीवजीवकः ॥” –8.20. The poet has not only seen the display, but what is more, the occasional 3. 220, 18-21. 4. Also सुश्रुत, 5.1.30-32 पद्मपुराण, सृष्टिखण्ड 42, 65; and हरिवंश, 3.41.76. Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 275 tragic end of it. Just when the Cock mad with love forgets himself and all else about him, he is suddenly struck down by an Eagle from the air. For aff as the Pheasant-tailed Jacana see Art. 60. 7. The Cheer and Kalij Pheasants have feathered faces with only the red orbital skin bare, and are the रक्तवत्मक (कालश) of चरक and रक्तवर्त्म of मत्स्यपुराण' The name Kalij in English is borrowed from Hindi कालिज (कालज्ञ) for the birds. "Kalij Pheasants are not nearly such noisy birds as are Junglefowl but call, one can hardly call it crowing, pretty regularly during the breeding season. This call or crow seems to be uttered only during the mornings. and evenings, never in the middle of the day. A Cock Kalij only calls on his roosting perch before he gets down from it in the morning, and after he has returned to in the evening before settling down for the night".2 It will be seen that the Kalij series of birds are there i.e. birds. 'who know the time when to call' as against the domestic Cock who crows all times of day. Again, the Kalij are not such good fighters as the others. These differences fully justify the two separate synonymies for Cocks in fer which regards the common domestic and Aseel Cocks at as er (expert fighter) and its (proud of bearing), and separates the feftare, कालश, कृकवाकुand चरणायुध for the wild varieties :- "कुक्कुटस्ताम्रचूडश्च दक्षः शौण्डोऽथ विष्किरः । कालज्ञः कृकवाकुश्च नियोद्धा चरणायुधः ॥" The mixing up of the names of the wild varieties is understandable. The Kalij Pheasants as a group are therefore, रक्तवरक or कालश-कुक्कुट, 8. The Pine tree is known as in Hindi and or w in Sanskrit. The Cheer Pheasant (34"-40") also is for (from ) in Hindi so that Sanskrit for a kind of bird' is no other than this Pheasant and M. Williams' rendering as 'Pavo Bicalcaratus' (the Peacock Pheasant) is in- correct. Another Hindi name for the Cheer is which is the same as Sanskrit काहल (कुं भूमि हलति) or रसाखन for a Cock. निघण्टरलाकर defines काहल as a very large cock Sanskrit names for it are therefore, सरल or काहल-कुक्कुट. 9. The White-crested Kalij Pheasant, known as fer, g or we in Hindi, apparently derives these names from Sanskrit, (a Cock), कुक्कुट and कालसूर (काल black, and शूर a Cock) respectively. Perhaps कलज like कालिज is a Prakrit form of कालज्ञ for a Cock. सुश्रुत has यवालक (यव barley and, therefore, of a white or whitish colour, and are a lock of hair, a crest) for a kind of gallinaceous bird, and the white crest of this Pheasant contrasting with its black body fully supports the name यवालक (फुफ्फुट) for it. 10. The Nepal-, the Black-backed-, and the Black-breasted-Kalij Pheasants are closely related birds, principally of a dark or black colour and 1. 118.53. 2. Stuart Baker in Indian Game Birds, III. pp. 279-280. 276 Birds in Sanskrit Literature with black crests. They are always found in the neighbourhood of water. The first two occur to the West and East of the Arun river in Nepal respecti- vely, and the third further East in Assam. Prakrit (from gr) means 'black' and कोणालक (कोण + अलक) is therefore 'black-crested'. With यवालक for the White-crested Kalij is highly probable for these black-crested Pheasants. Their habitat near water would seem to justify the following reference to them though it may well be to the Water Cocks which also perhaps share the name as a homonym, i.e., through a different derivation - “नित्यमत्तविहङगानि भ्रमरैः सेवितानि च । कोणालकविघुष्टानि सारसाभिरुतानि च ॥" -रामायण or 11. The Black-breasted Kalij is known locally in Assam as which is from Sanskrit ( musk and colour; 'of the colour of musk' i.e. black or dark-brown) for a (black) Cock. As all the three Black- crested Pheasants are allied, they are in Sanskrit. 12. One of these crested Kalij Cocks figures as "agar fr" (bird with a pendant crest) in the gear, where a cock hunting cat offers to be his wife without any dowry if only he descends to her from his high perch on the tree, but the shrewd bird replies that no matrimony is possible between a two-footed bird and a four-footed animal, and finally advises her to seek another mate: "सुचित्त पत्तच्छदन लंबचूल विहंगम ओरोह दुमसाखाय मुधा भारिया भवामि ते ॥" The Cock: "चतुप्पदा त्वं कल्याणि द्विपदाहं मनोरमे । मिगी पक्खी असज्जुत्ता अञ्ज परियेस सामिकम् ॥” 13. The Koklas Pheasant has a fully feathered face and a triple crest consisting of a median anterior tuft and two very elongated lateral posterior tufts (one on each side of the head). The crest thus bears an obvious resemblance to the trifoliate leaf of the fart or tree (Butea frondosa), For see Art. 61. and the bird is no other than the पलाश (कुक्कुट) of the हिन्दी शब्दसागर. It is actually known as प्लास ( पलाश ) in Kashmir and in the neighbourhood of Simla. No Sanskrit lexicon gives the name but there can be no doubt that it was पलाश or पालाश-कुक्कुट in Sanskrit as well, and the compilers of the Hindi lexicon had the name from some manuscript glossary. The other local name कोकलास is a palpable corruption of कुस्कुटपलाश or पलाशकुक्कुट, 1. All. Edn. 6.39.11. 2. No. 383. as a Water-Cock see Art. 58 and for re as the Painted Snipe Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants and Quails 277 14. The अभिधानराजेन्द्र has कृष्णतिय (कर्णचिक, under चम्मपस्थि) for a kind of चर्मपक्षिन् and if चर्मपक्षिन् has been inadvertently used for लोमपक्षिन्, and it has •certainly been so used for the जीवजीवक and समुद्रकाक, the name clearly refers to this three-crested Pheasant as कर्णविक (कुक्कुट) 15. The noble Impeyan Pheasant, "the most magnificent" of all Indian Pheasants, is common in Garhwal, Kashmir, Kulu and Kangra. valleys. It has a Peacock-like crest, a most brilliant body-plumage of metallic green, copper and purple, and a cinnamon-chestnut tail, and "when seen in sun-light the effect is indescribably beautiful". The orbital. skin and cheeks are smalt blue to brilliant ultramarine-blue. In the Peacock this area is white (fearra). From its crest and brilliant plumage, it has been regarded as a sort of small Peacock and is known in Hindi as fre or मुनाल (Prakrit for मृणाल पुष्करमूल, because the bird eats roots and tubers) and दतिया (दाति, दातम् a cutting or digging implement) after its powerful bill used for digging up roots for food. Sanskrit names for it are r (having the colours of a rainbow), a विष्किर bird of चरक; असितापाङग (having blue orbital skin); मयूरक ("मयूरप्रतिकृति" - शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि ) a little Peacock; • मयूरकुक्कुट (Cock resembling a Peacock); चित्रवर्हण or चित्रबहण (a bird with a coloured or painted tail or a peculiar kind of Peacock); and probably also मयूक (short for मयूरक ? "मयूकश्चित्रपिङ्गलः" in वैजयन्ती appears to be significant). With its "great shovel mandibles" the bird is said to be "a great digger" for tubers and roots, and for a kind of bird' in M. Williams would seem to be a descriptive epithet for it from some old lexicon; Cf:-- “कन्दानि मूलसस्यानि विदुः कन्दांश्च सूरणान्" - शाश्वतकोश. (edible It is quite probable that the Hindi name for it is from root of the lotus) as the bird perhaps digs up the tubers of ground lilies also for food, and hence the name. The terms and in the Jain refer to the Peacock and this Pheasant respectively, while the • महाव्युत्पत्ति refers to them as वहीं and मयूर or vice versa. 16. The following from the Mahabharata refer to this Pheasant as बहिण or मयूर (cf. Hindi नीलमोर) and असितापाङ्ग :- "महाद्रुमाणां शिखरेषु तस्थुः मनोरमां वाचमुदीरयन्तः । मयूरदात्यूहचकोरसङ्घाः तस्मिन्वने बहिणकोकिलाश्च ॥”–3.24.18 "मयूर: शतपत्रैच जीवञ्जीवककोकिलैः । चकोरैरसितापाचगैस्तथा पुवप्रियैरपि ॥" - Ibid. 3.108,8 1. See ibid under 'चम्मपक्खि'. 2. on the trees must be the tree-perching Hill Partridges which have a white gorget upon a dark neck as against the black gorget of the . They have, therefore, been regarded as a kind of which however is entirely a ground (beautiful or God bird. The Simla Hill Partridge is actually known as Rama's ) in Hindi, Cf. ferfra for the same with the Hindi name. Birds in Sanskrit Literature Appreciation of this Pheasant, one of the most beautiful birds of the world is indicated by the fact that it was considered as a fit present for young कार्तिकेय :- 278 "सुपर्णोऽस्य ददौ पुत्रं मयूरं चित्रबहिणम् ।" "गरुडो दयितं पुत्रं मयूरं चिवबर्हणम् ।" "चित्रबर्हणनामानं स्वपुत्रं गरुडो ददौ । अरुणस्ताम्रचूडाख्यं बलिनं चरणायुधम् ॥” - शिवपुराण 17. इन्द्राम as a name for this Pheasant has been defined by हेमाद्रि as a particular bird resembling a कडक, the Brahminy Kite, and of a variegated plumage ("पक्षिविशेषः कङ्कसदृशो विविधवर्ण:"--अष्टाङ्गहृदयकोश). Now this bird with a square tail, unlike most other Pheasants, and a large hooked bill does bear a certain amount of resemblace to the Brahminy Kite and for this reason has been considered as mystically related to गरुड as his son. The मयूर said to have been born out of the tip of a feather or सुपर्ण knocked out by the bolt of इन्द्र in सुपर्णाध्याय, 28, is obviously this Pheasant. "छिन्नं विधा तत्कुलिशेन पत्र तस्याग्रखण्डादभवन्मयूरः ।" -M.Bh. 13.86,21 -स्कन्दपुराण This clearly explains the relationship with Garuda and also the converti- bility of the terms मयूर and बहिण for the Peacock and this Pheasant as already indicated above. चित्रबई again in the महाभारत list of Garuda's progeny is evidently this bird, the चित्रबर्हण of the Puranas. One of the Naga Kings of the Buddhist Literature was named after this bird as इन्द्रायुध शिखिन्, which simply means a Cock with feathery crest and body-plumage of the colours of a rainbow-cf. इन्द्राभ Goddess नारायणी, i.e., पार्वती, is said to live in the midst of मयूरकुक्कुट birds :- "मयूरकुक्कुटतृते महाशक्तिधरे ऽनघे । कौमारी रूपसंस्थाने नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥" - मार्क. पुराण 88, 14 and the doubting commentator has fortunately reproduced the following alternative note on मयूर कुक्कुट from the commentary of शन्तनु चक्रवर्ती on सप्तशतिका :- "मयूराः कुक्कुटा इव चित्रपुच्छवर्जिता मयूरकुक्कुटाः तैः वृते । यदभ्युधु :- आरक्तनेत्रपिच्छायो मयूरः कुक्कुटः स्मृतः । बहॅण वजितो वहीं यः स मयूरकुक्कुटः ॥" 1. I कौमारिका खण्ड Ch.30. 2. 2nd रुद्र सं०, कुमार खण्ड. 5.49. 3. महाव्युत्पत्ति 168.47. Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 279 The eyes of the Monal are brown and to this extent the above definition is incorrect but it would be equally so for the Peacock as well for there is no red in or about its eyes. It would be ridiculous to take the phrase "बहॅण वजितो वहीं" as the common Peacock devoid of its splendid train, for then the reference to पार्वती living in the midst of Peacocks shorn of their glory would be a most graceless one and there seems to be little doubt that what is meant is "a Peacock-like bird which does not possess a long tail like the Peacock's". The identity of मयूरकुक्कुट ( a Cock resembling a Peacock without the latter's long tail) with the Monal or Impeyan Pheasant should thus be beyond doubt. Nevertheless, the compound name has been misunder- stood and rendered as two different birds, viz., the Peacock and the Common Cock, in a later Purána. A gift again to कार्तिकेय :- "गरुडादतिसृष्टी हि पक्षिणी द्वौ प्रभद्रकौ । मयूरः कुक्कुट व, पताका चैव वायुना ॥" In this verse the singular "मयूर. कुक्कुट:" of the been mistaken for two different birds :- ब्रह्माण्डपुराण following would seem to have "मयूरः कुक्कुटचं व पताका चैव वायुना।" वायुपुराण The मयूर as the mythological mount or vehicle of कार्तिकेय should therefore be this Pheasant and not the Peacock but here too the position has often been misunderstood. The Monal has been mentioned as मयूरादिविया (दिव्य 'living in heaven, i.e., in the Himalayas' or 'shining) in verse 26 of किचिदजातकs and as "सुवण्ण वण्ण मोर" or सुवण्ण मोर (सुवर्णमयूर ) in मोरजातक, 4 described as :- "दस्सनीयो पासादिको पक्खानं अंतरे सुरत्तराजि विराजिते ।" It is said to pray to the sun morning and evening, referring to the whistl- ing calls of the bird, quite unlike the केकाध्वनि of the Peacock related to thundering clouds. "परखानं अंतरे सुरतराजि" refers to the rather longish cinnamon-chestnut tail between the wings. The name सुवर्णमयूर has its analogue in Persian-"Murgh-i-Zarreen", the Golden Cock, for this Pheasant. C. TRAGOPANS, BLOOD PHEASANTS & PARTRIDGES 1. "The Horned Pheasants or Tragopans are amongst the most beauti- fully coloured of all game-birds, the males being more or less clad in red, with white or grey spots, and armed with a stout spur. The male has an 1. 2.10.47. 2. उत्त 11.46. 3. No. 511. 4. No. 159. Birds in Sanskrit Literature occipital crest of lengthened feathers and two elongate erectile sub-cylin- drical fleshy horns one from above each eye; these usually lie concealed by the crest, and are only erected when the bird shows off. There is also a brilliantly coloured apron-shaped gular wattle or lappet, that can be spread or withdrawn at pleasure." They have a bleating call in the breeding season (Hume & Oates). 280 The Crimson Horned Pheasant is mostly crimson above and below, spotted over with white black-edged ocelli. The horns are larger in the breeding season, at times over three inches in length. The Western Horned Pheasant generally resembles the crimson variety though it has less of red and more of black in its plumage. Its names in Hindi are if (Horned Pheasant), for (fr. Persian a head-ornament, and a beautiful: or by fusion from Sansk. जिगनु fire and जुहुराण a goat; ("जुहुराण: अग्निः छाग:"- उणादि श्वेतवनवासिन् 1.93), and फ़ल्गुर (corrupted from बल्गु a goat, विकाण्डशेष, मेदिनी). The bird is undoubtedly a fafest, and the Lahore Edition of the orafgar has for a kind of faf bird, but there is no such word in the dictiona- ries, m, 6.43 has 7 (a goat) instead, so that in v is evidently a mistake for ¹ (a goat). The Tragopan has not only a pair of horns but also the bleat of a goat, and ax or as a bird is no other than the Tragopan. The argmentions as a Himalayan bird : "जीवञ्जीवकनादैश्च हेमकानां च नादितैः । मत्तकोकिलनादैश्च वल्गूनां च निनादितः ॥" 36.3. It is also a bird of the woods on the banks of the Tamasã in the . “विनादितं सारसमुत्कुलादिभिः •प्रमत्तदात्यूहकुलंन वल्गुभिः ।" –अयोध्यामाहात्म्य, Ch. 9. In the latter case the term e can also mean 'sweet-voiced', but looking to the general sense of the passage it would appear to be a bird-name. Yet another possible name for it may be fe as a kind of bird given in कल्पद्रुकोश ("ऋतुष्टिस्तु यज्ञार्हो) which is from तु will determination or संकल्प ( क मनाधीनचित्तवृत्तिविशेष: शब्दकल्पद्रुम sub voce ऋतु) and यष्टि a stickie a horn in the case of a bird; cf. fe and fee for the Water Cock which carries a red, flat, horny shield projecting from the head. gafe thus means a bird which can erect its horn-like appendages at will; cf. the meaning of ऋतु in :- “स यथाकामो भवति तत्ऋतुर्भवति । यत्ऋतुर्भवति तत्कर्म कुरुते"-- - बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्, 4.4.5. Being a kind of Partridge or game-bird it has been declared fit for sacrifice (यज्ञाहं ). 1. बर्कर as a bird-name occurs in विष्णुधर्मोत्तर, 1.151.43 where बर्कशान् is clear mistake for बर्करान् Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 2. M. Williams renders gun as the Common Cock (Phasianus gallus) which appears to be incorrect, for Emperor Jehangir describes a bird under the name of in his Memoirs and his description fully means 'resembling a flower and agrees with that of the Tragopan. is evidently an extempore or off-hand Urdu rendering of Sansk. goraga (bird like a flower). This last name also means a spotted bird (gera spot, referring to the spotted body of the Crimson Horned Pheasant) but looking to the colour pattern of the bird the first may well be the intended meaning, gore again, (gr flower or spot and a body) a bird in the list quoted from पराशर in the बृहत्संहिता (भट्टोत्पल-टीका p. 1018) appears to be this bird just as of the same list is clearly the Ostrich which not only has long legs and neck like a camel but also only two toes like him. The Ostrich must have been known as an imported bird. It is evidently the Camel Crane of the Chinese Traveller, Ju-Kua, who mentions it in his description of the Chinese and Arab trade of the 12-13th century.³ 281 3. The Blood Pheasant is noted for the unusually large number of spurs he wears on his legs-two to four and even five of them. The female also has two on each leg. शारपद of चरक (fr. शार. hurting or सार strong; cf. rs for the Grey Partridge and were for the Cock) and (having spurs resembling a plough-share; cf. erfor) of the list of Himalayan birds in , 118, 54 probably refer to this bird. His voice is 'a peculiar cry not unlike the squeal of the Kite' (S. Baker) and the vernacular names like चिलमिलि (cf. चिल्ल for kite) and सेरेमिन (cf. चिरम्भण for the Kite) seem to point to the bird's original Sanskrit names like चिल्ल-कुक्कुट or चिरम्भण-कुक्कुट which have now been lost. 4. Another bird to claim the names सारपाद and सीरपाद (कुक्कुट ) is the Red Spur-fowl of the Nepal Terai (and related forms occurring in other parts of the country) which too is armed with two to four spurs in the male and one or two in the female. It is known as 'Sárvä' in Tamil country. The propriety of these names would seem to lie in the fact that both the Cock and the hen of the Blood-Pheasant and the Red Spur-fowl are furnished with spurs whereas in the Common Junglefowl the male alone bears this character. The Peacock Pheasant, however, also carries two or more spurs but he is better named after after the protection the hen gives to her chicks who walk under the cover of her broad tail. Again, the Red spur-fowl, though a member of the Partridge group, looks like a small fowl and might well have been known in Sanskrit as कुक्कुटक (अल्पायें, प्रकारार्थे कम्). Its Hindi name is indeed छोटी जंगली मुरगी (the small jungle fowl). 1. Presumably on the basis of a lexical equation like gura: e which, however, is correct in a way inasmuch as the horned bird is big enough to pass for a kind of Cock. 2. Tuzuk-i-Jehangiri; Vol. II. 221. 3. Penzer's Ocean of Story. Vol. 1. 4. सीरहल, and the latter term has actually been used for the Cock's spur in the expression "ताम्म्रचूडहल" ponding passage of विष्णुधर्मोत्तर, 1.151, 42-48 rrads शारपाद. in यशस्तिलकचम्पू at p. 296, But the corres 282 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 5. The Mountain Quail (10") found only within certain areas in the outer Himalayas (e.g. neighbourhood of Nainital and Mussoorie) is the गिरिवर्तक (v.I. गिरिवतिका) of चरक and fगरिया of सुश्रुत and कल्पद्रुकोश (“गिरिशा गिरिशायिका" — a bird breeding on the mountains; cf. पुष्करशायिका, कुशेशय etc. as bird names). डल्हणाचार्य equates गिरिशा with गिरिवर्तिक and gives पर्वतवाही (वासी ?) its behaviour it closely resembles as an alternative. Bustard-Quail as it refuses to fly until almost trodden upon, pitching into the grass again after a short flight and would therefore appear to be the बृहल्लाव of भावप्रकाश, artsfart 121. See Section D paras 5-10 for Bustard-Quails. 6. The Hill Partridges are confined to the Himalayas only and do not occur in the plains or the peninsula of India. Their call is a low soft whistle, single or double, quite unlike the call of the Grey and Black Partridges. Unlike these again, they normally perch on trees. The Common Hill Partridge and the Rufous-throated Partridge, as also some of the varieties of the Eastern Himalayas, are known in Hindi by the name ft. M. Williams gives शङ्करप्रिय (शङ्कर शिव ईश्वर) and the वैजयन्ती has ईश्वरप्रिय for a Partridge, both obvious synonyms. Now the term f in a fe may optionally stand first as गुडप्रिय or प्रियगुडः 1 so that ईश्वरप्रिय would be the same as far and this latter would seem to have given us the bird's Hindi name, पिउरा (प्रिय-पिय- पिउ + ईसुर, पियेसुरा- पिट्टरा-पिउरा ?). Apart from this inexpert playing with etymology there is a reason for this Sanskrit name to denote the Hill Partridge, viz., that both Lord Siva and this bird, being permanent residents of the Himalayas, are supposed to be born companions. fra (or frèvre) may therefore denote the Hill Partridge. 7. The Chukar is a beautiful Partridge of an ashy and buff colour with a black gorget and red bill and feet. It is rather lucky in that it has been allowed practically to retain its Sanskrit name in English², 3 is said to be a bird resembling a चकोर (“उपचक्रश्चकोरभेद:"-चक्रदत on चरक ). The Seesee Partridge stands nearest to the in physical characters and shares a common habitat in the hills of the Punjab even taday. In olden times it may well have ranged along the hilly country further east. It, therefore, appears to be the उपचक्र of चरक, सुश्रुत and महाभारत :- “चकोरैरुपचक्रंश्च पक्षिभिर्जीवजीवकैः" 3.178.7. and are again mentioned together in a very ancient work : "उपचक्रचकोराणां हंससारसयोरपि"- भेलसं हिता, 174 is also the Sheldrake (Art. 84-C). 1. Panini 2.2.35. 2. According to poetic tradition, based upon the bird's habit of roosting on open ground at night, the T is said to be greatly devoted to the moon and to live upon moon-beams. The epithet applied to a man or woman implies his or her intense desire to look constantly at the beautiful moon-like face of the beloved and has no relation to the shape of the eyes: सा च तेन समानाय रूपयौवनशालिने । दत्ता बराङ्गना नेव चफोरामृतरश्मये ॥ -कथासरित्सागर, 77.50; sre abso ib. 76.11 and 93.45. Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 8. The Black and Grey Partridges of north India are offert or simply वित्तिर (v.l. तित्तिरि) and गौरतित्तिर or कपिजल respectively, and have been well- known in Sanskrit literature from the Rgveda onwards. The former has given its name to the afererefiger of the Yajur Veda (hence called also याजुषः) and the connected उपनिषद् and आरण्यक. The beautiful verses of the खिलसूक्त of the Rgveda addressed to the कपिज्जल a bird of the farmlands who 'sticks to the farmer as close as he can' have been given in the Introduc- tion and need not be repeated here. पारस्कर गृह्यसूत्र (1.19.8) advises the flesh of the plump and contented-looking Grey Partridge (fr) to be fed to a baby-boy at his a ceremony if the parents want him to grow up in opulence as a well-fed and happy young man. Other names for the Grey Partridge are जाङ्गल ("जाङ्गलो निर्जलदेश:" and therefore a bird living in such country. In this sense, the term probably also means the Himalayan Snow Partridge, a bird of the snow-line, another type of a country), and कपिश तित्तिर (कपिश grey ). The Black Partridge is also चित्रपक्ष ( of veriegated or spotted plumage) and its spotted plumage is accurately described in the way. The name frater as an adnoun would also include the Painted Partridge which occurs south of the Gangetic plain. 9. The Grey Partridge or af, being always associated with crops. and his breeding season falling in spring (March-April), he is dedicated to the beneficent deities, the : and to the deity presiding over the spring season :- "वसूनां कपिञ्जल:" – VS. 24, 38; TS. 5.5.16. "वसन्ताय कपिञ्जलानालभते" - Ibid. 24.20 The Black Partridge, fafafe, continues to breed till July when the rains set. in and Nothern Painted Partridge, and allied form, begins to breed with the break of the rains and this fact coupled with its black colour accounts for naming this bird either for the rain-deity or the - “वर्षाभ्यः तित्तिरीन्" - VS. 24, 20, "रुद्राणां तित्तिरी" -TS. 5.5.16 As food for the prowling snake:- 283 "मण्डूको मूषिका तित्तिरिस्ते सर्पाणां" -Ibid. 24.36 10. The Kayah or Swamp Partridge occurs from the Gangetic alluvial plain eastwards. It is known as क्यार in Bengal and कोडरा ( कुतितरा-कुतित्तिर? ) in Assam. It is brown above with buffy white bars and white to pale buff below. The male has only short blunt spurs but is the most pugna- cious of all the Francolin Partridges. It is probably the faf of as the brief description of it in कल्पद्रुकोश, 1. "यस्तु स्यात्पाण्डुकपिलः स कुतित्तिरः" agrees very well with the colour pattern of the birds's plumage. 8,20 mentions three different Partridges according to the commentator 5.5.4.6. 284 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and a proper reading of the verse¹ gives the three names as (1) fafafe (2) वृत्त तित्तिरि, the great fighter (यश्च पक्षिषु मतोऽधिपमल्लो) and (3) गौरतितिरि and of these the first two are said to be of equal value with the third for purposes of augury. Now, i.e., Te is a kind of grass or water reed (r-M.W.) and the name qafafefe therefore points to the Swamp Partridge which keeps to and breeds in elephant grass, "nal", etc. either close alongside some swamp or water-course... (F.B.I 2nd ed.). 11. The Himalayan Snow-Cock is a huge Partridge with a variegated plumage of white, buff, black and chestnut. It is 28 inches long and often. weighs upto six pounds, i.e. four times as much as the Common Grey Partridge or afs. It is thus not only the largest Partridge known but its flesh also is one of the best for the table' and far superior to that of the Grey and Black Partridges. It thus appears to be afes (fafafe) of the lexicons for afes means 'the largest or best' and the Snow-Cock is both. In the following synonymy:- वरिष्ठस्तु तित्तिरौ । वरिष्ठं मरिचे ताम्रे वरोरुतमयोरपि ।।" "4 afes is clearly a descriptive epithet for the best or largest Partridge, the best kind of pepper and the best amongst the metals, viz. copper. The Napali name for the bird is 4 or a which like Hindi ator for the 'was- herman' are perhaps corruptions from af. In Kashmir it is known as which is the same as gw, described as a bird with variegated plumage:- "चित्रवर्णस्तु ककुभो" – कल्पद्रुकोश The name is certainly for a kind of Partridge and probably belongs to the Snow-Cock as the lexicon gives it with other names for Partridges. also means 'lofty or excellent' and is quite in line with afes for the bird. is included with the Quail, Grouse, Grey Partridge and other birds in a medical formula for elephants in sickness by पालकाप्य in हस्त्यायुर्वेद. 12. The Snow-Partridge is known as far in Hindi, which is from Sanskrit , an adnoun for the Grey Partridge of the Plains. This name indicates a dry region more or less poor in trees, and it is quite under- standable that two different birds of the Partridge family inhabiting dry territory, one in the plains and the other above the snow-line in the Himalayas, should share a common name. Another Hindi name for it is तेर तीतर, probably from तेजल तित्तिर (तेजल-तेवर-तेर '?), a synonym for कपिञ्जल in the af and, therefore, of arg also. g is 'fire and brightness' and the name refers to the bright red bill and feet of the Snow-Partridge (at anfa- arorer:). D. QUAILS & BUSTARD-QUAILS. 1. Science recognizes two kinds of Quails, viz., (i) true or four-toed Quails belonging to the Order Gallinae, and (ii) the three-toed Bustard Quails, 1. Quoted under Art. 54. Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails placed in the Order Hemipodii, but as there is a general similarity of appearance common to both they have been distinguished and named separately in Sanskrit in accordance with their size and habits. and divide the true Quails into three varieties, viz., वर्तक, बर्तिका and वर्तीर or वर्तीरिक, and place the Bustard Quails in a single group as a (fr. w small) since they are the "most diminutive of the game-birds". This point is made clear in the कल्पद्वकोश :- "तस्मिंल्लघुतरे पुंसि लवी लावो लवः पुनः ।” 285 The name वर्तक has variants like वार्ताक, वार्तक etc., and वर्तिका is similarly synony- mous with वर्तका, वार्तिका, etc. Owing to this confused spelling mistakes have crept into some printed texts of the above two Samhitas. All the names seem however to be derived from root and probably refer to the quick running movement of these plump little, almost tailless, birds on the ground like a rolling ball. 2. The largest in the series of true Quails is the Common or Grey Quail (about 8") and next to it are the Black-breasted or Rain Quail (about 7") and the Blue-breasted Quail (5.5"). The first is the ad and the Mother two are का of चरक as explained by चक्रपाणिदत :--- अन्यथा स्त्रीत्वेन वर्तकाद् वर्तिकाया "वर्तिका स्वल्पप्रमाणजात्यन्तरमेव लाघवं स्यात् । "2 It is thus clear that the feminine afrer has been deliberately applied to the smaller Quails. डल्हण also holds वर्तक and वर्तिका to be different species, "वर्तिकावर्तकतभेदो". अमरकोश has वर्तक and वर्तिका for different birds in the list of thirteen individual names for as many kinds of birds. भावप्रकाश and अष्टाङ्गहृदय also regarded the two as different. If the Grey Quail is a, the other two are star a (fr. Telugu fear small) in Hindi. 3. The equations “फालखेलागरुयोधी" and "वर्तिका विष्णुलिङ्गी स्यात्" of विकाण्डशेष give merely descriptive epithets and if dis 'a bird that favours culti- vated fields' it would apply to the Grey Quail which always prefers wheat and barley fields to grass or jungle. It also fights like others of the group with its wings and at would thus apply to all fighting Quails (see Art. 27 for a further discussion of this equation). farfar (having the sectarian mark of a dra) probably refers to the buff coronal streak and supercilia common to these birds. The equations are therefore not specific for any particular bird or birds in the Quail group. 4. The Bush-Quails (6-7") "resemble Quails in size, but differ widely from them, and, to some extent, agree better with the Partridges in struc- ture and habits. ..armed in the males with a blunt tubercular spur" (Oates). They are great fighters and fight even with greater rancour and clamour than the Grey Partridge (Hume and Marshall). It is to be noted 1. Based upon the rule "स्त्रीस्यात्काचिन्मणाल्यादिविवक्षापचये यदि"अमर 3.5.7. 286 Birds in Sanskrit Literature that the Grey, the Blue-Breasted and the Black-breasted Quails have no spur at all. These differences had certainly been noticed by the ancients and they therefore differentiated the Bush Quails as बर्तीर or बर्तीरिक, डल्हणाचार्य describes are as "af" i.e. a little Partridge' and the lexical synony- my, वर्तीरोऽल्पकपिजल:"-कल्पद्रुकोश, brings out the same fact. The expressions अल्प- कपिज्जल and लघुजाङ्गल mean the same thing and the equation "लावको लघुजाङ्गल" --विकाण्डशेष, fully corresponds to the one from कल्पद्रुकोश. But it shows that the Bush Quails came later to be looked upon as varieties of a (- प्रकारायें कन्). The names वर्तीर and वर्तीरिक therefore belong to Rock and Jungle Bush Quails of North India. As a result of their inclusion into the लाव group, however, they came to be distinguished as पांसुल-and गैरिक-साव (see below). r and fashould be simply a wild as against a pet or domesticated Quail, as all, except the Rock Bush Quail, live in the Jungles. The above four-fold division of these seemingly similar birds as noted in para I above is indeed creditable to the Indians of at least two thous- and years ago, for they must have been distinguished long before and adopted the classification in their works. 5. The Bustard-Quails, including the species called Button-Quails, have only three toes and lack the hind toe. Outwardly they bear a close. resemblance to the true Quails but are definitely smaller in size. They are the लाव of चरक and लोपा of the वाज, संहिता. The Bustard and Button Quails together with the Rock-and Jungle and Bush-Quails came later to be classified into four varieties of as follows:- "गैरिक: पांसुल व पौण्ड्रको दर्भरस्तथा । लावश्चतुर्विधः प्रोक्तः तित्तिरिः द्विविधस्तथा ॥ – डल्हणाचार्य on सुश्रुत "लावा विष्किरवर्गेषु ते चतुर्धा मता बुधैः । पांसुलो गौरकोऽन्यस्तु पौण्ड्रको दर्भरस्तथा ॥" - भावप्रकाश and धन्वन्तरिनिघण्टु, The first question to be decided in this connection is whether the names. are related to the colour-pattern-which is very variable in all members of the group--or to the habitat of the birds. Considering however the facts (i) that animals and birds have been divided into and accord- ing as they occupy dry and wet zones respectively, and (ii) that their food values, from the point of view of medicine, are related to the habitat, it would appear that the above names also refer to the type of country. favoured by these little birds. The name in the second verse has an alternative reading of गैरिक under "लाव" in the अष्टाङ्गहृदयकोश and also in मदन- Tafa (Bom. Edn.) and the latter (f) appears to be the correct reading. In the first place, the term ff cannot be related to any particular type of country and can only refer to the colour of the bird's plumage, but in this case it would seem to come in conflict with in a similar sense (i.e. of the colour of the pale variety of sugarcane). Secondly if t Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 287 is taken in the sense of 'having a gu mark on the head, the term would apply almost to all Quails which cannot have been intended. It is there- fore suggested that the four names including fee should be interpreted with reference to the type of land favoured by the birds. As all the Bustard-Quails have similar habits and confine themselves to grass-land or crops including sugar-cane, they would fall within the and [पौण्ड्रक groups and it is difficult to pick out birds which prefer hills (faft) or sandy areas to grass or crops. In other words no Bustard Quails can be classified as f or Tiger and one is forced to include both the species of Bush Quails of North India in this so-called a group to complete the series. Bush-Quails are definitely smaller than the common Quail and therefore came to be treated as varieties of . The equation "artag" fully bears this out and they are actually known as in Hindi. This view finds further support from the fact that the generic names of and gg for Bush- Quails, viz., rfffee and eff, have been completely omitted from ww and aff. The following classification is based on the above consider- ations. (1) air-the Rock Bush-Quail (7") which avoids forest hills and dense vegetation, and is chiefly found in sandy or rocky ground. It is one of the wife group and is the of the equation "लावको लघुजाइ गलः". (2) ff -The Jungle Bush-Quails (6") which frequents hills (faft), thick bush and forest. Another member of the art group. (3)-the Button-Quails (5.5-6.5") of the Indo-Gangetic plain and lower Himalayas found in young sugarcane (5%) and borders of cultivation (Stuart Baker). (4) The Bustard-Quails (6"-6.5") chiefly found in grass or low bush. Their local names are after the names of grass, e.g., the Burmese Bustard-Quail is fafres (fr. in Nepal and Bihar; the Common Bustard-Quail is T or gaf (kinds of grass) in North India and Ratnagiri; and the Calcutta Bustard-Quail is also at. The only improvement that this classification makes upon that of the old authorities is that the original wr group has been divided into it and se corresponding to the Bustard-and Button-Quails of Stuart Baker (in F.B.I.). Curiously enough ser felt sure about the ff and but not about and पौण्ड्रक which are the true लाव of चरक and सुश्रुत for he says, "गैरिकपाशुली प्रसिद्धी, पौण्ड्रकदर्भरी देशान्तरे लोकादवगन्तब्यौ" । 6. The e gives a few additional and odd names, probably of Prakritic origin and also perhaps corrupt in spelling which need not detain. us, but two of them कूणि: (कूणी ?) and कुमारक: are probably connected with the breeding habits of the Bustard-Quails. These live chiefly in grass and low bush but are seldom seen, except when disturbed. The bird then rises 288 Birds in Sanskrit Literature at one's feet, flies for about ten or fifteen yards, and drops again into the grass, whence it can very seldom be flushed for a second time. They differ in another respect as well from the true Quails. The ordinary conduct of the sexes is reversed during the period of incubation and it is the females. who "do all the courting; they fight with rival females, for the favour and possession of the males, to whom they relegate the care and incubation of the eggs and the up-bringing of the young. One hen will apparently go on laying eggs as long as she can find a supply of males to incubate them...". (Smythies, S. Baker and others). 7. In respect of the breeding habits of these birds Hume cites a state- ment by Jerdon that the Indians knew them, a fact which is clearly reflect- ed in the names given to the female and the male birds in the ga, viz. af and re: respectively. The first may mean (i) 'having a defective hand or limb' from कुणि or कूणि, “कुकरे"अमर, and the name should refer to a Bustard Quail which is short of one toe, or (ii) as an abbreviation of gerfor harlot' in reference to the breeding habits of the female. This is no doubt a little far-fetched and may not stand the scrutiny of grammar but the name for the male bird is very suggestive of this latter sense. (with कुत्सितार्थे कन्; cf. "माणवक: कुपुंसि स्यात्" - हेमचन्द्र ) is a half-witted, hen pecked or servile youth and refers to the jilted male Bustard left in charge of eggs and young. 8. Finally, the skulking habits of Bustard-Quails as a group have given us the very ancient name of लोपा for them. वैजयन्ती has "लोपालोपायिके समे" and the name is from root , , 'disappearance'. The skulking habit after the first flight, is so persistent that they prefer to be caught by the hand or even hammered to death at the place of hiding rather than escape by taking wing again (Hume and others), and naturally they fall an easy prey to the prying fox. This peculiar trait of these birds and the employment of dogs to make them rise again, if possible, have been described in firs शास्त्र :- “उत्थापयेयुः लावादीन् ढौकयेयुश्च तद्गतीः । यत्नैकवारं पतितः पक्षी कुर्याश्नचोत्प्लुतिम् स रज्जुना शुना तत्र मार्गयित्वा (तुं ? ) विसर्जयेत् ॥ (6.32-33) The Indian Button Quail is known as लोवा (लोपा पस्य वः) in Hindi. The Indian fox is known to eat small birds so that are is (fra fox in विकाण्डशेष) a fox that eats the लोपा birds. In the वाज, संहिता 'लोपाश' is dedicated to the Asvins," anfr" 24,36 which helps to connect the story of the Asvins saving the life of a Quail so often mentioned in the Rgveda (1.117. 16;118,8; etc.). The enemy of the aft was of course but the term apparently included the fox, for मेधातिथि on मनु (8.235) explains वृक as "शृगाल f," and the fire of the Veda was most probably a Bustard-Quail. In 1. कुलकूणी तु कुलटा कल्पद्रु. 23. Cf. Prakrit कूणित – rotten. 2. This is a 1 most appropriate name for these birds: cf. प्रमक्तस्यादर्शन लोपसंज्ञं स्वात् काशिका, 1.1.60, ic. the disappearance of a thing previously observed is लोप.. 3. सोपा and लोपाश are mentioned in तै संहिता, 5.5.18 and 21. Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 289 saving one from a fox, the Aśvins defeated the mischief of the latter, and, seen in this light, the propriety of naming the for them with of course a touch of humour becomes quite clear. 9. Quail fighting, as royal sport, is described in lear, 2,253 where three varieties of wild birds are named (from damp areas; cf. c), (from the Vindhya territories, cf. f for a Quail), and i together with three home-bred hybirds of the first and second degrees. As the wild varieties are said to interbreed in captivity it is highly probable that they all belong to the group of Bustard Quails, the females of which are great fighters. In any case it is not possible to fix the identity of the species particularly because the nomenclature has undergone considerable change under Dravidian influence ter being a South-Indian work. 10. Like many other birds the Quails too have contributed their share to sacred and other literature. The first has the distinction of being mentioned in the Rgveda with the Aśvins as their protectors, and in the Vaj. Samhita with its enemy, the for. It has furnished a beautiful illustration to the logician in "a", and a picture of helplessness against superior force in :- “श्येनावपातचकिता वनवतिकेव कि चेष्टसे नन चिरात्कवलीकृतासि । --मालतीमाधव, 8.8. Against this last may be set the resourcefulness of the little (Bus- tard-Quail) in the frame (168) which not only successfully avoided the attack of the Falcon but, by a sudden manoeuvre, also brought about the latter's death. The e (35) is a replica of the story of and fr in the Mahabharata with Quails as the principal actors. The story of the Quail and the Crow in the Hitopadefa illustrates the evil conse- quences of keeping bad company (section 3, story 5). 56 MAGAPODES No bird of this family occurs within India proper. 57 BUSTARD-QUAILS These birds as a class are the लाव, लोपा, or लोपायिका, the females being कूणि and the male gars in Sanskrit. Generally speaking they are regarded as smaller varieties of Quail and have, therefore, been considered in the combined article on Quails and Bustard-Quails -No, 55D. RAILS, CRAKES, MOORHENS, WATERCOCKS AND COOT Small in size. अम्बु कुनकुटिका, कुलवारी, चित्रांगक Waterhens proper पारिप्लव, जलकुक्कुट Waterhens including the Rails, Crakes and Coot जलकुक्कुट 58 of medium size White-breasted Moorhen waterhen कृष्णा- शुक्लकण्ठ दात्यूह, जलकुक्कुटी मेघराव, of large size Purple coot or Moorhen मंजुल दारयूह, जनरंकु दात्यूह राजीन, कमल. Coot कृष्णकारण्डव, जानवाद" सुमुब प्लव, Water-cock यष्टिक जल कुस्कुट, Note- The meaning of पारिप्तव (v.]. परि०) as जलकुक्कुट has been missed in ft. The commentators of the M.W. and other lexicons except and also have overlooked it. See para 9 of the article. 1. All these birds are comprised within the general term and possibly also fra in Sanskrit (para 9 below). The Rails and Crakes which resemble slim chickens are the smallest of the group and are much alike in their habits. They spend the day among reeds and rushes and come out to feed early mornings and late evenings. They are the arr-fem ( tiny water birds resembling a chicken) of सुश्रुत and अम्बकुक्कुटी of चरक, The Blue-breasted Banded Rail and the Banded Crake are the कुलवारी (कुल + वारि, frequenting water near the bank ?) or far (having painted bands on the body) of कल्पदुकोश :- "कुलवारी लघुः कृष्णः चित्राङ्गदः (चित्राङ्गक: ? ) " 2. The larger birds like the Moorhen, the Purple Moorhen, etc. are properly so called and each of them has one or more specific names as well. The Moorhen looks like a full-sized black chicken and is found 293 Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot in the vicinity of thick cover near water, cultivated fields or gardens. It is the कृष्णा जलकुस्कुटी ("अथान्या जलकुक्कुटी कृष्णवर्णी") of कल्पद्रुकोश. 3. The White-breasted Waterhen, most remarkable for its "atrocious" and "roaring" calls, and named for this reason in and g, is one of the commonest water-birds of India, found wherever water is surrounded by a certain amount of thick cover. It is a dark coloured bird with white forehead, foreneck, breast and abdomen. 4. The Purple Moorhen is a large blue and purple-coloured bird with a red bill and shield and red legs and feet, found in reedy marshes and lotus-lakes, walking about over the partially submerged weeds and floating lotus leaves and "on the whole the bird is comparatively seldom seen un- less beaten out of cover." From its striking colour and size it is "one of the greatest ornainents of our marshes" and, it may be added, of our tanks with lotuses and reedy margins. Not quite so noisy as the White- breasted Waterhen, it has a variety of loud calls. It feeds on tender shoots of the lotus, other water-plants and on the rice crop. Sanskrit nomenclature for these two birds is closely allied with certain names for the Pea-cock, the Black-Ibis and the Hawk-Cuckoo and they are considered in the following paragraphs. 5. अत्यूह, नत्यूह, वायूह, and मुगूह, as bird-names of obscure etymology would seem to be inter-related in some way, the first three from root ag and the last from root, and an attempt is made here to distinguish and allocate the terms to their respective owners with the help of lexical synonymies not a few of which have sacrificed perspicuity for the sake of brevity. It may even be doubted whether the authors themselves had a clear idea of what they meant to define, and there is reason to believe that some of them at least have merely tried summarize and compress what they found in the older but more detailed lexicons. Or it may be that they proceeded on the assumption that the names were too common and well- known to call for any elucidation. (i) the Peacock and Hawk-Cuckoo : (a) अत्यूह, a प्रतुद bird in चरक corresponding to दात्यूह, in सुधृत is the Hawk-Cuckoo (Art. 37). (b) "अत्यूहस्तु मयूरे स्यादत्यूहानीलिकौषधो"-हेम, विश्व. (c) "अस्यूहा नीलिकायां स्त्री कालकण्ठखगे पुमान्"-मेदिनी. (d) अट्यूहः दात्यूहे, कालकण्ठके– शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि (e) -Peacock; gallinule-M. Williams. Ts in (c) and (d) is the Peacock and ag in (d) the Hawk-Cuckoo and Peacock. Both have a traditional relationship with the dark rain- cloud. If the one welcomes it with his loud calls, the other begs of it, equally vociferously, a few drops of water. It is interesting to note that e also means a rain-cloud. M. W.'s rendering of as a Gallinule can only refer to the Purple Moorhen as agt which means the indigo which yields the blue colour. Birds in Sanskrit Literature (ii) नत्यूह–“Probably - Dātyūha in the Rāmāyana" (M.W.). Although this word occurs more than once in the Rāmāyana it is surprising that the older lexicons and even Apte do not give it. From the context, however, it appears to be the White-breasted Waterhen. The term occurs as an alternative reading for दात्यूह in some editions but as the latter means both the Hawk-Cuckoo and the above Waterhen one has to deduce the meaning from the context. See examples given later. (iii) दात्यूह-the Hawk Cuckoo, the Black Ibis the White-breasted Waterhen, and the Purple Moorhen, each with a specific epithet.: (a) दात्यूहः कालकण्ठकः-अमर. क्षीरस्वामी gives कालकण्टक as v.I. and explains कालकण्ठक as 'black-necked' and कालकण्टक as having black feathers. रामाश्रमी टीका on the other hand, explains the former as "काले वर्षाकाले कण्ठो रवोझ्य"—one that calls during the rainy season. (b) दात्यूहे कालकण्टक:-अभि. चिन्तामणि which gives कालकण्ठक as v.l. and explains both like क्षीरस्वामी, and दात्यूह as “ददाति आनन्दं दात्यूहः" दात्यूह in this last sense is the Hawk-cuckoo but कालकण्ठ दात्यूह or कालकण्टक दात्यूह is the Black Ibis for which see Art. 80. According to the explanation in रामाश्रमी टीका, कालकण्ठ दात्यूह, as a homonym, should also be the Hawk-cuckoo and the White-breasted Waterhen both of which are very vocal during the rains. (c) मादक दात्यूहे- शब्दकल्पद्रुम; with "मायति वर्षागमे हृष्यति" the name can signify the Hawk-cuckoo if this etymology is parallel to “ददाति आनन्दं दात्यूह” (d) "दात्यूहः कालकण्ठे स्याद् दात्यूहश्चातकेऽपि च" -विश्व "दात्यूहः कालकष्टके चातकेऽपि" -हेमचन्द्र, मेदिनी. 294 These two equations make it quite clear that दात्यूह as चातक,, the Hawk Cuckoo, is quite different from the कालकण्ठ or कालकण्टक दात्यूह which is the Black Ibis. This makes the रामाश्रमी gloss on कालकण्ठ as "काले वर्षाकाले” untenable. (e) "कालकण्ठस्तु दात्यूहे कलविङ के च खञ्जने सितापाङ्ग हरे पीते सारके नीलकण्ठवत् ॥" "विश्व and हेमचन्द्र. This synonymy is final on the question of interpretation of कालकण्ड or नीलकण्ठ both of which, as applied to the different birds, simply mean 'black necked'. The Black Ibis, the Magpie Robin, the Large Pied-Wagtail and the Peacock are the birds meant here and everyone of them has an entirely black or blue neck. (f) "जलकाकस्तु दात्यूहः स च स्वात्कालकण्टकः"--धन्वन्तरि and राजनिघण्टु This places the identity of कालकण्टक दात्यूह beyond doubt, as जलकाक in the present context is no other than the Black Ibis.

• The Koel also calls persistently like the Hawk Cu ckoo, and expressions like "माद्यत्कल-

कष्ठ पञ्चमस्त" – रुविमणीपरिणय 4.3 for the former make it highly probable that मादक दात्यूह is the latter bird. Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot 295 (8) "शितिकण्ठस्तु दात्यूहः"; "दात्यूहश्चातकेऽपि च"-विकाण्ड, With farfer for 'black' the first equation stands for the Black Ibis, and firfer for 'white' it is for the White-breasted Water- hen; see शुक्लकण्ठ below. The second equation calls for no remarks. (h) "शुक्लकण्ठ दात्यूहे" -शब्दकल्पद्रुम and M.W. ( i ) ............ दात्यूहः कालकण्ठकः अत्यूहोऽपि च दात्यौहो मासज्ञोऽपि च स स्मृतः:"- कल्पद्रुकोश. This refers to (1) the Black Ibis, (2) the Hawk Cuckoo and (3) the White-breasted Waterhen (दामोह and मासज्ञ are explained later in this article ). (j) “बहुक:दात्यूहे"; "हुडुक्कः मत्तदात्यूहे" --हेम मेदिनी etc. "हुडुकस्तुमदोन्मत्ते बाद्यभिज्जलपक्षिणो:"–महीप. The first as "बहुना कायति" is applied both the Hawk- Cuckoo and the above Waterhen, while the second seems to refer to the Waterhen alone as it is actually known as डाहूक पाखी in Bengali and 'डाहुक' is clearly from हुडुक्क. This name or epithet has been explained by महेन्द्र in his notes on the अनेकार्यसंग्रह of हेमचन्द्र:--- "हुडुक्क वाद्यविशेषः । मुक्तहिक्काः हुदुक्का:” The है second part of this is fully descriptive of the call-notes of the white-breasted Waterhen during the breeding season, actually described as "roars, hiccups and cackles" by EHA. The call of the Hawk-Cuckoo on the other hand does not at all resemble a "hiccup" or हिक्का. This helps us to fix हुडुक्क दात्यूह for the Waterhen, and मादकदात्यूह for the Hawk Cuckoo. (iv) (a) मुगूह is equated with दात्यूह in शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि and M.W., and with (1) पपीहा or the Hawk Cuckoo and ( 2 ) a kind of deer in हिन्दी शब्द सागर. In view of the fact that deer names like रङ्क, कमल and राजीव are associated with the Purple Coot or Purple Moorhen as a kind of दात्यूह it would appear that मुमूह (गुह-गोपने to conceal or hide ) also refers to that bird and its identity with पपीहा in हिन्दी शब्द सागर is incorrect. (b) "मञ्जुलं तु जलाञ्चले, रम्पे, कुब्जे, मञ्जुलस्तु दात्यूहे" – हेमचन्द्र "जलरस्तु वज्जुलः (मन्जुलः ?) दाव्यूहश्च"वैजयन्ती "मञ्जुलजलरडू पतनिणि" – मेदिनी, शाश्वत "दात्यूहो जलरङ्कः स्यात्" हलायुध "मञ्जुलजलरदके (जलरको ? ) -हारावली "जलरोतु मञ्जुलः" -विश्व "गोरडू - जलकुक्कुट in निघण्टरलाकर जलरज - जलरङ्क – M.W. All the above equations apply to the Purple Moorhen as a kind of दात्यूह. It is “one of the most beautiful birds found on our Indian jheels", keeps to rushes, reeds and dense lotuses, is averse to flying and walks upon lotus leaves and other water vegetation and runs to cover when disturbed; rarely swims though it can swim, and has a variety of hooting, cackling Birds in Sanskrit Literature and hoarse calls. It is particularly noisy during the breeding season. In short it has beauty and behaves like a skulking little deer on water and fully deserves the names मज्जूल-दात्यूह, मुगूह-दात्यूह and जलरडकु-दात्यूह. The only other birds that can claim these names are the Jacanas but they are small birds, have no skulking habits, nor loud and powerful call-notes. It will be seen that the so-called substantives of the lexicons are really in the nature of descriptive epithets and the name दात्यूह principally means 'a noisy bird' and it is only the qualifying adjectives which make it specific for particular birds. 6. दात्यौह (v.1. दात्यूह ) is named in "दात्यौहो मासानाम्" वाज. संहिता (24.25 ) for the deity presiding over the Months, and in all probability it is the White-breasted Waterhen which is dark or black above and a clear white below, and mystically represents the dark and the light halves of the month. Support for this view comes from the afer. afar (5.5.17) where a tortoive is dedicated to the same deity- "मासां कश्यपः", and here too the back of the animal is dark-coloured and the belly a pale white so that दात्यौह is the same as the शुक्लकण्ठ दात्यूह. It is from this dedication that the bird has earned the naine मासज्ञ (knowing the month) as in the synonymy (iii), (i) above. 7. In "क्वयिः कुटरुः दात्यौहस्ते वाजिनाम्" –वाज संहिता, 24.29, again, it is the noisy White-breasted Waterhen with qafa the Screech Owl or the Common Owlet (Art. and कुटरु, the Green Barbet ( Art. 35), the last two being equally noisy birds. The alternative explanation of दात्यौह by Sayana on तैत्ति संहिता as 'पुष्करिणी बसति:' ('living on lotus-ponds') is perfectly true of this Waterhen. This selection is quite apt as the noise made by these birds is typical of the din and uproar attending horse races. The White-breasted Waterhen breeds during the rains when the males "become exceedingly •obstreperous" and their calls begin with "loud raucous grunts, croaks and chuckles suggestive of a bear in agony and settle down to a monotonous and metallic ku-wak...ku-wak or kook...kook...kook... On cloudy days this is often kept up for 15 minutes at a stretch, and calling continues more less throughout the night"-Salim Ali. EHA also remarks that "the clam- our which this little bird can raise is something astounding". मेघराव of चरक is clearly this bird but डल्हण has incorrectly rendered it as the चातक which however, is not a water-bird at all. 296 1. Probably also जलरब्ज दात्यूह, one that gives colour or charm to a tank. In the synonymy-- जलरन्ज:"-अभि. चिन्ता, दात्यूह has to be "दात्यूहे कालकष्टकः जलजलाack This (कालकण्टक), the Purple treated as a homonymi referring to the Moonhen (जलरङ्क), and the Hawk-cuckoo (जलरज्ज) क्षीरस्वामी or अमर, gives जलरज for चातक, and on 2.5.22 for दात्यूह Evidently जलरब्ज homonym or merely a descriptive epithet for more than one bird. As applied to the चातक 'जल' of जनरज means 'rain-water'. 2.5.17 also a 2. Cf. पक्षाभ्यां शुक्लकृष्णाभ्यां मासस्तु परिकल्पितः पद्मपुराण, क्रियाखण्ड, 22.56. Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot 297 The above syllabification of the calls of the bird helps to identify the दात्यूह of the following verse: "प्रावृट्काले सुखी भूत्वा को वा कुल न गच्छति । इति वदति दात्यूहः को वा को वा क्व वा नव वा ॥" शब्दकल्पद्रुम It roosts and often places its nest on low trees in the vicinity of water and is also “often found some distance from water". The दात्यूह of भवभूति spending hot hours of day in the hollow of a tree appears to be this bird :- "दात्यू हैस्तिनिशस्य कोटरवति स्कन्धे निलीय स्थितम्" - मालतीमाधव, 9.7. This verse, perhaps, helps to solve the following synonymy in वैजयन्ती:-- "अथ शकटाविले प्लवपरिप्लवो अन्वर्थनामधेयौ ही जालपादाम्बुकुक्कुटी ।" that is, the name शकटाविल applies to two different birds viz. प्लव and परिप्लव (पारिप्लव) called respectively जालपाद (the Coot) and अम्बकुक्कुट (Rails and Waterhen). Now शकट is the तिनिश tree (Ougcinia dalbergioides usually a small tree yielding valuable wood used for various purposes including carts and hence its name शकट or स्वन्दनतर) and according to भवभूति, the White-breasted Waterhen occasionally does conceal itself (आविलति) in the hole (विस) of a शकट tree. One the शकटाविल birds, therefore, is this दात्यूह and the other in a hononymous sense of the term (शक्टाविल आविल confused, शकटब्यूह-mass formation or array, i.e, a bird moving in a confused mass ) is the Coot, the "प्लवा: संघातचारिणः" of चरक. 8. नरयूह in the following examples is जलकुक्कुट or दात्यूह according to the commentator and therefore, the present Waterhen :- "रथाह्लहसा नत्यूहाः प्लवाः कारण्डवाः परे । तथा पुंस्कोकिला: क्रौञ्चा विसंज्ञा मेजिरे दिशः ॥" रामायण, 2.103.43. "बुद्धपद्मोत्पलवनाचक्रवाकोपशोभिताः । नत्यूहरुतसंघुष्टा हंससारसनादिताः ||" रामायण, 15.14.25. The humble Waterhen and its smaller cousins have not been overlooked in the Epics: “सलिलकुक्कुटकारण्डवकलहंसादिभिविचित्रमुपकूजितामलजलाशय ....” भागवत, 5.4.2. "कारण्ड: सारसैहंसैर्वज्जुलैर्जलकुक्कुटैः । चक्रवाकंस्तथा चान्यैः शकुनैः प्रतिनादितान् ॥" रामायण, 4.13.8. "कादम्बैश्चक्रवाकै कुररैजलकुक्कुटैः ।" महाभारत, 3.158.56 1. Mahabharata III.146.44 is a similar verse probably taken over from the Rāma- yana. Here the प्लवा: are the Cormorants and कारण्डवाः the Coots. 298 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 9. परिप्लव (v. 1. पारिप्लव, agitated, confused), as just seen, denotes जलकुक्कुट and the term probably includes almost all the members of the Rallidae family, excepting the Coot which is a bird of open waters, skulking about nervously amongst the reeds and vegetation lining the banks of rivers and tanks. In the following examples, the term appears to have been used in this comprehensive sense. They are said to be within the cane and reed- beds flanking a river. fafre also figures as one of the river-side trees: “वानीरैस्तिनिशां व बकुलैः केतकैरपि ।" "पारिप्लवशतैर्जुष्टाः बहिकोचविनादिता । रमणीया नदी सौम्या मुनिसङ्घनिशेविता ॥" “उपान्तवानीरवनोपगूढान्यालक्ष्य पारिप्लवसारसानि । दूरावतीर्णा पिबतीव खेदादमूनि पम्पासलिलानि दृष्टिः ॥" रामायण, 4.27.23. रघुवंश, 13.30 It will be particularly noted that Kalidasa has very correctly described the fer birds as concealed within the reeds lining the lake. The Saras Crane too looks for prey in such beds. Talso mentions af birds with other water-birds in specifying the type of country in which royal elephants should spend the winter months.¹ 10. The Purple Moorhen, as seen above, is work. It goes under the name off in Hindi which is from Prakrit fer for नीलोत्पलम् (देशीनाममाला) the blue lotus. Sanskrit राजीव too is the blue lotus. Now both and also mean 'a kind of deer'. again, is one of the birds of diurnal habits (fr) and one of the group, i.e., those which are active both by day and night, in the afagu:- खज्जरीटकदात्यूहशुकराजीवकुक्कुटा: भारद्वाजच सारङग इति ज्ञेया दिवाचरा: ॥ श्वाविद्वृषभगोमायुवककोकिलसारसाः तुरंगकौपीननरा ( ? ) 2 गोधा हृयुभयचारिणः ॥ 213, 16-19. The list of birds in the मत्स्यपुराण (118, 52 ) includes कमल for a particular bird along with गोनदं for the सारस ( (गोचर्म is evidently a mistake for गोनर्द). Thus Hindi and Sanskrit and are names for the Purple Moorhen from its blue colour and association with lotus plants amongst which it lives and moves like a pretty little deer. 11. "The Coot is a slaty black bird resembling a typical Waterhen land but rather duck-like on water in the distance, with a white pointed bill and white horny shield covering the forehead. Gregarious by habit, it. is always found in flocks on open sheets of water including slowly moving rivers. Large numbers visit India in winter when the birds collect in 1. See हत्यायुर्वेद p. 200. 2. The corrupt reading of the last line can be amended with the help of To afger, 87.3. Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot 299 'immense herds', and on the larger jheels of North India great patches of water are often literally black with their multitudes" (Salim All). Hume also speaks in the same strain... "Common Coots cover on the Manchar (Lake) a square mile of water which is perfectly black with them." (Stray feathers, 1.249). Their call, often heard, at night, is a clear and loud trumpet-like cry. It is one of the commonest birds and has naturally won several names for itself-some from its white bill and blaze the forehead standing out against the dark body-colour, and others from its gregarious habits. It is the सडपातचारी प्लव ("प्लवा: सडपातचारिणः”) of चरक and सहचारी सुमुख ("सुमुखाः सहचारिणः", सुमृख, from the white face against a black body) of सुश्रुत The following lexical synonymies are based on the characters just mentioned (i) (ii) "कारण्डव: काकवक्त्रो दीर्घाङघ्रिः कृष्णवर्णकः" – कल्पद्रुकोश अथ शकटाविले प्लवपरिप्लवो अन्वर्थनामधेयौ द्वौ जालपादाम्बकुक्कुटी" -वैजयन्ती (iii) "जालपात्पुरुदंशक:" -विकाण्डशेष (iv) "कारण्डवो महापक्षो" -वैजयन्ती "सहस्रपाद कारण्डे" ---हेमचन्द्र, विश्वप्रकाश "कारण्डवस्तु मरुलः" अभिधानचिन्तामणि Before proceeding to a consideration of the above it is perhaps advisable. to state that the terms प्लव, जालपाद and कारण्डव (v.1. कारण्ड) refer to more than one bird. means (1) a water-bird in general, (2) a Cormorant, which often takes a jump clean out of water before diving, (3) a Duck in general and the Pelican in particular as both swim or float like a boat and (4) the Coot which not only swims and dives but also patters along on the surface of the water with its feet like a frog (() before rising into the air. T is (1) any web-footed water-bird and particularly a Goose or Duck, and (2) the Coot which moves in a mass (ar, 'a multitude' with 4, to go). means (1) the Coot from its gregarious habit-in Pali, 'chaff, sweeping'; cf, 'barley Chaff'; 'a bee-hive'; 'a box or wicker- basket which may contain many things'पेटक- 'a multitude";" "करण्डस्पेंद as a st" and, therefore, a bird that lives in large numbers like bees in a hive and that looks in the mass like so much chaff floating on water, or again that has the shape of a wicker basket, in reference, probably, to the duck-shaped baskets of old; and (2) a Duck e.g. पीततुण्ड कारण्डव, the Mallard and others. 12. The first quotation defines the Coot or as a i.e. having are or sectarian mark, fase, on the face. The bird's facial white shield resembles such a mark. The bill of the Coot is white and far too small and thin (1.4") to be comparable with that of a Crow. Its Hindi name (fr. Telugu ca, a fares worn by the Hindus of South India, or from Sanskrit दर्शनीय corresponding to सुमुख of चरक) and टिकरी (fr. Sanskrit तिलक, Prakrit 300 Birds in Sanskrit Literature टिक्क – Hindi टीका; टिकली in Hindi is such a mark or a spangle worn by women on the forchead) fully support the interpretation of ra. Emperor Jehangir mentions the Coot by the Persian name of "Qushq-ul dagh" (Qashq being the sectarian mark of white sandal worn by the Hindus, and 'a spot')¹. It is immaterial whether the bird is actually known in Persia by the name given in the Memoirs but what is certain is that that was how. the bird's Indian name was explained to, or rendered, for hiin, and it un- doubtedly helps to get at the true significance of the epithet . The other two adjectives in the definition indicate the large feet and the dark colour of the Coot. 13. The quotation from the it has already been considered earlier and it only remains to point out that far as are is no other than the Coot and both these terms refer to its gregarious habit. It may also be pointed out here that जालपाद occurring with हंस in स्मृति or धर्मशास्त्र literature, where the birds that may or may not be caten are discussed, means the Coot, but almost all the commentators have missed the true meaning, and I need not refer to some of their absurd explanations like, पि हंसाः सन्तीति हंसानां पुनर्वचनम्."2 सायण माधवाचार्य, however, in his notes on पराशरधर्म- efnahas frankly stated that he does not know the birds named शरभ. and 14. The equation "a" stands for the Coot and not the Goose or Duck. ge incans 'crowded or standing closely together and not 'many-teethed' as assumed by M. Williams. I have not come across any reference to the teeth of a Goose in Sanskrit though the action of their bill and tongue in sifting out food ( in the sense of st) from water is often mentioned. Both the terins of the equation thus mean the same thing moving or living in dense flocks'. 15. महापक्ष in "कारण्डवो महापक्षो" again, refers to the great or large (महा) partics (8) in which the birds are always found.5 So too #ga (moving in their thousands) as a descriptive epithet of za is on a par with as explained above. Lastly may nican a bird that cannot live without water as explained in the or it may be a humorous reference to the birds in the mass as 'the devil's host'. This series of adjectives describing the gregarious habits of the Coot may be compared with the title of the Buddhist work अवलोकितेश्वर गुण कारण्ड ब्यूह, describing the thousands of the virtues of the बोधिसत्व अवलोकितेश्वरः "कारण्ड व्यूह" clearly refers to the packed mass of Coots containing hundreds of thousands of indivi- dual birds covering the surface of large waters by the square mile. The idea 1. Memoirs (Translation by A. Rogers, I.C.S.) p. 342. 2. मिताक्षरा on याशवत्वयस्मृति 1.174. 3. Ch. 6.1; Bombay Sanskrit Series No.59, Vol.II. Pt. i, 1898. 4. For the use of a-afwer in this sense see M.Bh. 3.7.18; 5.195.11; 6.56.8 (said of an army arranged in गरुडव्यूह). 5. Compare "gri faa" for a friend having a large number of supporters' in कामन्दक नीतिसार 7.66 (translated by M. Williams). Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot 301 is that the good qualities of Lord af are as innumerable as the Coot birds in ag called . The name wf for the Coot, where शकट stands for शकटब्यूह, is fully parallel to कारण्डव्यूह. 16. It will be seen that the majority of the epithets for Coot are clever synonyms for the simple terms, सहचारी and सघातचारी of सुश्रुत and चरक, and only one, viz., has been actually used in the fa literature to avoid confusion with other bird-names. In the Purânic literature the term V has been used probably in its homonymous sense i.e. meaning both Coots and Ducks particularly in the stock phrase "हंसकारण्डवाकीर्णा". In the alternative कारण्डव would include both Ducks and Coots by उपलक्षणा, Coots being a permanent feature of all waters including slow-running rivers flanked with rushes, canes and reeds there is no mistaking them as in the following- ( महाभारत ) । "हंसकारण्डवोद्गीता सारसाभिस्तास्तथा" "कारण्डवाननविघट्टितवीचिमाला: कादम्बसारसकुलाकुलतीरदेशाः ।" "फुल्लपड कजपण्डानि प्रसन्नसलिलानि च । कारण्डवविकीर्णानि तटाकानि सरांसि च ॥” "जीवञ्जीवलसज्जीवं क्वणत्कारण्डवोत्कटम् ।" "सदा कूजितलक्षेण तत्र कारण्डवद्विजाः " ( ऋतुसंहार ) 2 ( रामायण ) 3 (स्कन्दपुराण, काशीखण्ड) 4 (ब्रह्माण्डपुराण, उत्तर. ) # 17. Because of the Duck-like appearance of Coot when on water, the name has been applied to certain Ducks with suitable adjectives (Art. 84-c). 18. The Water-Cock equals the Purple Moorhen in size but is of a slate-grey colour. The bill, the shield on the forehead and the legs are red but the shield of the breeding male grows into a long horn. The note of the male consists of loud booming calls, chiefly heard in the breeding season. It is a skulking nocturnal bird frequenting reedy tanks and is known as कोरा, कोंगरा, or कोंड़ा in the vernaculars. It is a very pugnacious bird and is often kept by people in Bengal for fighting, and it is from its fighting habit that it has been named Water-cock in English (Whistler) 19. यष्टिक for जलकुक्कुट in शब्दकल्पद्रुम and शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि can only be this bird which carrics, as it were, a stick-like horn on its head; cf. - "afcunfuta"- i.e., 'one armed with a stick' or fighter. It is also कोवष्टि (के शिरसि यष्टिरिव यस्य) in the same sense. Yet another very expressive.name for the water-cock is after its booming call notes. 1. 3,38.20. 2. शरदर्शन 3. 3.8.14. 4. 32.101 5. 35.10. Birds in Sanskrit Literature This name contrasts with the ground bird (), the Crow pheasant or Coucal with a similar powerful voice (Art. 37-B). The lexical definition for the latter: कुहरुम्बन:-अभि० चिन्ता• is applicable to both the birds. aga as calling from its nest in after refers to it simply as कुक्कुभ in a list of water birds (पव: पतङ्गः) atp. 529. , p. 159 mentions the reedbed bordering a river but 302 20. Sanskrit कोणालक (Prakrit कोणालग) from कोण a stick, and अलक 'a curl on the forehead', may well be the present bird, and if so the name offers a better relationship with the vernacular or than the name कोपष्टि, 1 कोणालक in the verse below should be the booming Water-Cock or the Black-crested Kalij which too lives in the neighbourhood of water (Art. 55) - "नित्यमत्तविहङगानि भ्रमरैः सेवितानि च । कोणालकविपुष्टानि सारसाभिस्तानि च ॥" रामायण All. Ed. 6, 39.11. कुणाल or कुनाल is the Painted Snipe and these latter would seem to have got mixed up with me as a homonym for two other birds the water-cock and the above named Pheasant ( Prakrit for black and अल a crest). 1. Lapwings and certain members of the Heron group also share the name stufe Arts. 71 and 82. 59 MASKED FINFOOT This bird occurs in the most inaccessible places in the extreme cast of India, and from its Rail-like characters it would pass for a variety of जनकुक्कुट 60 JACANAS 1. The two species of Jacana found in India are about the size of a Pigeon and entirely aquatic by habit. The Bronze-winged Jacana is of a blackish colour with bronzed back and wings and a stumpy chestunt tail. It is a noisy bird specially when a number of them are together and tripping about lightly on their extraordinarily long toes on lotus leaves and floating vegetation in a tank and they give an impression of having an irritable temper. A flight of them as they move from one part of a tank to another reminds one of a flock of Blue Rock-Pigeons despite a pronounced differ- ence in their mode of lying. It is the जल-कपोत, जल-भारावत or कोपी of the lexicons : जलपारावतः कोपी प्रोक्तो जलपोतक:-धन्वन्तरि, राजनिघंटु Sanskrit कोपी (अवश्यं कुप्पति-शब्दकल्प ) is the same as कोपका of डम्हणाचार्य [incorrect- ly equated by him with feet of g (Jeevanand's Cal. edn.; N. Sagar edn, reads and arg which are incorrect). These names are after the bird's supposed bad teinper and correspond to its Prakrit names like कोमंग को गह, or कोभक पारेवत or पारेपत as a water-bird in बेस्संतर-जातक, verse 2107, the same as are in Sanskrit. I have not met with this bird in litera- ture. Its Bengali name जल-पीपी may be a corruption from जल-कोपी. 2. The Pheasant-tailed Jacana, on the other hand, is a decidedly beautiful bird with a striking plumage of white, gold and brown with a distinctive, long, pointed sickleshaped tail which is often held well above the water in a beautiful curve. The nesting and other habits of this are similar to those of its cousin but in all its actions it is more elegant and has earned the poctical name of "The Little white water-Princess" in English (S. Baker). It has a piping note which is rather pleasant and musical though it has also a mewing call (hence its names and after in Hindi). It is the firafer (fra tail) the long-tailed water-bird or Water-Peacock; cf. the Peacock-Snipe for the Painted Snipe (Art. 61) in Telugu after the ring of white feathers round its eyes, a character shared with the Peacock- (Art. 35) of याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृति प्रायश्चित्ताध्याय 272, where both the ground and the water-Peacocks are prohibited as food: 1. Articles 71 & 82. 2 ओवादय सुत्तं 4 अभियानराजेन्द्र कधी कोण) Jacanas 305 हंसश्येनकपिकव्याज्जलस्थलशिखण्डिनः | Commentator fratre offers a rather curious explanation of the compound जलस्थल शिखण्डिन: which runs as under: "जलशब्देन जलचरा बकादयो गृह्यन्ते स्थलशब्देन स्पलचरा बलाकादयः ( v.l. बकादयः) । शिखण्डी मयूरः ।" He thus renders the word as 'water-birds like Storks and Herons', and er as 'land-birds like Egrets, and separates frufort, Peacocks, from both. In the first place Storks, Herons and Egrets are all water-birds in an equal degree and cannot be separated as proposed, and secondly there is no warrant to interpret the simple terms like and to mean water and ground birds. It is submitted that the correct way to split the compound as wa-fwater and far as noted above. The Pheasant-tailed Jacana goes by the name of जल-मंजोर (? जल-मंजुर) in Hindi whose मंजुर should mean the Peacock (vide F.B.I.). The forms occur in Nepal according to Turner's Nepali Dictionay. wenige is thus the same as or जल-शिखण्डिनु. or for 3. The Pheasants as a group are comprised within the expression after onfe (Art. 55) and most of them are characterised by long tails; and corresponding to the name 'Water-Peacock' we have the name 'Water- Pheasant' as well, viz. el a water-bird' in ge and at p. 198 in . Again, stere in the following examples, descriptions of lake- scenary, can only be the Pheasant-tailed Jacana:- जीवज्जीवलसज्जीव गवणत्कारंडवोत्कटम्कन्दपुराण, काशीखंड, 32.101. एक एव प्रियाहीनो रामोऽस्मि कुसुमागमे । इतीव जीवज्जीवोऽयं विरोति दयितासः ॥ ●उत्फुल्ल विविधविकसिताम्बुजजातिजीवितजीवज्जीवकम् । - रामायण मञ्जरी, 9.1149, -नलचम्पू, 5, above verse 57. अभिधानचिन्तामणि, on the other hand, has mixed up this जीवज्जीव with the चकोर in the following equation: जीवज्जीवस्तु गुन्द्रालो विषदर्शनमृत्युः । Here the first part describes tas par i.e. as a bird that constructs a nest with the Tat veriety of watergrass whereas the wete, which lays it eggs in a hollow in the bare ground, only sometimes lines it with dry leaves and grass but never with the r grass. Both the Jacanas on the contrary make a nest of rushes and water-grass and place it on floating vegetation. offer is therefore the same as afraft and not the चकोर which is supposed to die at the sight of poison (विषदर्शनमूत्युक: Art. 55-c). 1. जीनज्जीव: appears to be a homonym; (i) जीवान शावकान् जीवयति जीवज्जीव the Peacock Pheasantand (d) जीवन जन जीवो जीविका यस्य जीवज्जीनः the Pheasant-tailed Jacana. 306 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 4. The maar of Hemacandra has if for a particular water- bird with and as synonyms. These are difficult to solve or resolve but if कार्यधुअ can be analyzed as कायं देहं धुअ धुव्वइ धुनोति i.e. an unsteady or agitated bird, the name may refer to the Bronze-winged Jacana. Similar- ly कायंचुल may be explained as कायं देहं चुलु चुलुइ ( चुलु- चुलु - स्पन्दने – पा.स.म.). on the other hand may be closer to and would then refer to the other Jacana. In this sense the letter would stand for Sanskrit - like the in Prakrit er, a water carrier'. If so the synonyms also would belong to the Pheasant-tailed Jacana with perhaps a different analysis. It is also worth noting that the second line in the following illustrative verse in देशीनाममाला, 2.29 is comparable with the verse from रामायणमञ्जरी quoted above : कालिंजणि सामल घणत्थेवे रुअन्ति विरहिजणा । रे कायंधुअ कायंचुलीयइ सहियो सि कूजसु तुमंता ॥ Trans. People separated from their beloved do cry out of sorrow when a cloud dark like the Tamala tree begins to rain, but how strange O g! that thou shouldst cry even when thy mate is with thee. It is quite possible, however, that of the verse is the noisy Browny winged Jacana with a predominantly black body and therefore supposed to be in sympathy with a dark rain cloud. 2 PLATE VIII 1. Demoiselle Crane 2. The Black-necked Crane 3. The Hooded Crane 4. The Great White or Siberian Crane 5. The Eastern Common Crane 10 Tea 3. 6. Macqueen's Bustard (or Houbara) 7. The Little Bustard 8. The Lesser Florican 9. The Great Indian Bustard 10. The Bengal Florican 3 ठ 5 1. Rosy Pelican 2. White Stork 3. Black Stork PLATE IX 4. Flamingo 5. Lesser Flamingo 6. Bearded Vulture 7. Himalayan Griffon 8. Scavenger Vulture 9. Common Peafowl 300 12 9 4f Costubs 1964 600 MM 24 IN Coombs. 1964. 5 3. Indian Reef Heron 4. Bittern 5. Giant Heron PLATE X 1. Red-tailed Tropic Bird 2. Great White-Bellied Heron 150 MM 6 IN 0 6. Black Ibis 7. Glossy Ibis 8. Spoonbill 9. Yellow Bittern 10. Little Bittern 2 10 300 MM 12 IN 61 THE PAINTED SNIPE The Painted Snipe is not a Snipe at all but an aberrant type of Sandpi- per and as it cannot be fitted in with any well defined group of birds it has been separated as a family by itself. It is one of those few forms in which the female is the larger, brighter coloured of the sexes and the dominating partner in sexual matters. The females fight for the males and challenge one another with a loud note. After a male has been secured and eggs have been laid the female entrusts the duties of brooding the clutch and rearing the young to her partner and so soon as she is ready to lay again she seeks another partner in the usual manner, and so on. From her larger size, handsome colouration and the ways just referred to she is often mistaken for the male of the species. These birds inhabit rushy, reedy swamps or margins of tanks and lakes up to about 5,000 ft. in the Himalayas and at suitable places in the plains. Being birds of crepuscular habits they possess, like the Snipe, very large eyes which, unlike the Snipe, however, are placed in a forward position. The female is olive-brown and bright olive-green, closely barred with black above: rich chestnut on the upper breast which is separated from the white belly by a blackish-brown pectoral band. A white ring surrounds the large eye and is prolonged into a streak behind it. The male has a duller plumage, a drab or brown breast and a white belly. The ring round the eye is buff. The wind-pipe of the female is longer than that of the male, and curves into a full loop, and it thus provides her with a powerful voice apparatus, for it is she who does all the calling with a deep mellow note. Frank Finn's remarks about the eyes of the bird, quoted by S. Baker in Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vol. II, 132, are very interest- ing: "Like Owls, also, this bird has a singularly expressive countenance. On the rare occasions, however when one sees the bird walking about at ease, the feathers over the eyes are raised so as to be higher than the crown, which gives quite a wide awake expression. In moving about thus, the head is carried high, and the bird looks tall and graceful." No wonder it is called the 'Peacock Snipe' in South India because of the beautiful plumage of the female and particularly the white ring round her eyes and its extension (cf. ; a Peacock). Birds in Sanskrit Literature कोनालक as a water-side bird included in the list of प्लवा in सुश्रुत is explained by डल्हणाचार्य as " श्यामपृष्ठ श्वेतोदर:- पानीयवर्तिका इति लोके", and the कल्पद्रुकोश also defines the fer (?) as a kind of 'water-quail' or Snipe: 308 "श्वे तोदरः श्यामपृष्ठ: कोनीलो जलवतिका" i.e. the water-quail known as is dark above and white on the abdo- men. This agrees fully with the description of en and there is reason to hold that the original has been deliberately or mistakenly changed into by the scribe to make the name correspond in sense with the descriptive epithet श्यामपृष्ठ. M. Williams gives the forms कुनाल, कुणाल कोनालि, कोनील, and कोनालक as names of waterbirds. Evidently names of more than one bird and some wrong spelling are involved here. The Painted Snipe is known as ओहोचाहा (चाहा a Snipe ) in Nepal, from Sans. , Prak. a 'to descend' in reference to the bird's descent from higher to lower levels in winter (in Nepal), or from Prak. ओहोरिमं उद्गीतम् after its mellow call-notes. It is कोनेबट्टा (कोनाल-कुनाल-वर्तक) in the Singbhoom district and पानलवा (जलवतिका) in South India. Taking these with the definition in कल्पद्रु it appears that कोनील (कुनाल ) is the Painted Snipe, is the Water-Cock (Art. 58) and possibly also the Black crested Kalij pheasant (Art 55 B). कुनाल as an auspicious bird of ललितविस्तर' and कुणाल of the कुणालजातक (536) are most probably this bird. The beautiful story of the birth of Asoka's son कुणाल is given in दिव्यावदान where the new born child is named कुणाल because his eyes were as bright and beautiful as the gure bird's. That it is a water-bird is clear from the following verse :-- “हिमेन्द्रराजे गिरिशैलशृंगे प्रवालपुष्पप्रसवे जलाढ्ये । कुनाल नाम्नेति निवासपक्षी नेत्राणि तेनास्य समान्यमूनि ॥" Page 406 The mentions also a lake ga, in the Himalayas, apparently so named, as its shores abounded in these birds. In the efeafter the sweet voice of the Lord Buddha is compared with that of the bird whose deep mellow note fully justifies the comparison. The name appears to be analogous to are for the Red Munia, both being derived from the bad or coarser and good or finer reeds or grasses (g-bad, -reed or grass, and g-ara) in which they live and breed. It is also possible, on the other hand, to derive the word from ring to the soft "kone-kone-kone" notes of the Painted Snipe (Tickell). , refer- 1. Chapter 5,44; 13,186 and 21,377. 2. Pp. 405 et seq. 3. Ch. 19.357. 62 CRANES 1. The Cranes are among the largest wading birds with long bills, necks, and legs. large broad wings and short tails. They fly with the neck and legs straight out like the Storks and since they bear a superficial resemblance to them members of both the groups are often confounded one with the other. They may, however, be readily distinguished from the Storks by their graceful form, thin and smaller bills and the fact that the hind toe is rudimentary and does not touch the ground. Unlike the Storks, there- fore, they are unable to perch on the trees. Another radical difference between a Crane and a Stork consists in their breeding habits and the nature of the young. Indian Storks always nest on trees and the Indian Crane, the Sarus, whose habits have been well known in India, nests on ground or in shallow water. The young of a Stork are helpless and must remain in the nest until they are well able to fly, whereas the young of the Crane are active from the start like young chickens, and follow their parents. A majority of cranes have fine trumpeting calls while the Storks, having no voice clatter their bills during courtship or when excited. The former are mostly vegetarian while the latter feed on fish, frogs, reptiles and insects. No Stork or Heron (() is mentioned as a pet-bird in literature but the Common Crane and Sarus have ever been favoured as pets. It is necessary to stress these differences as the term for a Crane has often been rendered as -f (a kind of Stork or Heron) in commentaries lexicons.1 1. 2. Of the seven species of Crane described in the Fauna of British India by Stuart Baker only three are regular winter visitors to India and one, the Sarus, is a permanent resident over the greater part of the country. क्रुद्धकोच: कोंच बक इति भाषा-शब्दकल्पद्रुम. ऋचः बकविशेषः, Ibid बकभेद:--वाचस्पत्यम्. बक, बकी इति भाषा.--शब्दकल्पद्रुम कुररपक्षी-शब्दकल्पद्रम None of the older lexicons connects the with the and it is only from a very superficial likeness between a crane and a stork that commentators and compilers of present-day lexicons have fallen into the error. Explanations like the above should therefore be understood to mean 'a bird resembling a stork or heron". 310 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Amongst the visitors the commonest and the most numerous are the Com mon and the Demoiselle Cranes. They are powerful fliers and form into huge flocks before moving from their breeding grounds in Central Europe and Central and Northern Asia and again on their return journey from India. They arrive in India in September-October and leave by March- April. "The observer who is favourably situated will hear one morning a loud clanging call (of the common crane) and looking towards the sound will see in the distant sky a vast tangled skein of birds. As it approaches it resolves itself into an immense concourse of Cranes flying at a tremendous height. The stream of birds travels across the sky like an army.... As they go a single bird trumpets answered by others" (Whistler). The flight is generally in the form of open V-formation which was the model for the कौम्वव्यूह of ancient Indian military science. They walk in a stately manner and "are lively and cheerful to a degree, devoted to their mates, and addicted to social amusements and athletic exercises, in the way of dancing and running and playing with sticks when on the ground. ... They display much affection for the young, and are easily. tamed, often becoming very affectionate" (F. Finn). The great white or Siberian crane arrives in much smaller numbers and is fairly common in N. W. India and is found as far east as Bihar. The Hooded crane from Japan and Eastern Siberia is a rare visitor to Assam. The Black necked crane is canfined to the Himalayas (Ladakh, Tibet etc.) while the Burmese Sarus is found in Eastern Assam. 3. The following information (A) and lexical synonymies (B) bear- ing upon their Sanskrit nomenclature may be considered before setting out a brief description of the different species and allocating the appropriate name or names to each : A. कोच, पुष्कराहव, and सारस for three different species of Crane, and मृणालकण्ठ for the flamingo, are included in the list of प्लवा: or water birds in चरकसंहिता, कोच पुष्कर, कुरर and सारस, as above, in पराशरस्मृति quoted by भट्टोत्पल in his commentary on बृहत्संहिता, 85.28. कुरर and सारस as above, listed with other water-birds by पालकाप्य in ch. 13, p. 198 where मृणालग्रीव refers to the flamingo. महाको B (i) "क्रुझ कोच:"-अमर, वैजयन्ती, अभि. चिन्तामणि (ii) (a) "कुरर: खरशब्द: क्रुङ् क्रौञ्चः पंक्तिचर खरः। --राजनिघण्टु 1. क्रौञ्चानां खेगतिर्यादृक् पंक्तितः सम्प्रजायते । तादृक् सञ्चारयेत् क्रौञ्चव्यूहं देशवलं यथा ॥ शुक्रनीतिसार, 4.7.279. Eagles never fly in formation and श्येनव्यूह is the arrangement of an army in the shape of an Eagle on the wing. Cranes (b) "अथाउपस्वर: क्रो: स्यात्पंकिचरः पुनः । शरत्पक्षी वऋचश्व रक्तको राविजागर: । शेवलाद: पुण्डरीकनयनः ।" -- फल्पद्रुकोश (c) "क्रोध: शरहि कुररपक्षिणि"-- शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि (iii) (a) "कर्करेटु: करेटुः स्यात्”–अमर. (b) "कर्करेटु: करेटु: स्यात् करटुः कर्कराटुक:"-अभि. चिन्तामणि (iv) (a ) "पुष्कराह्नस्तु सारस:"-अमर. (b ) "सारसस्तु लक्ष्मण: स्यात् पुष्काराख्यः कुरः । ' सारसे दीर्घजानुकः गोनों मैथुनी कामी श्येनाख्यो रक्तमस्तकः ।" - अभि. चिन्तामणि (c) "सारसस्तु कलाङ्कर: गोनर्द: " (d) "कुरङ्करः पुष्कराह्न: " -विकाण्डशेष - हारावली 311 (e) “अथ लक्ष्मणसारसी लक्ष्मणो रसिकः कामी काकुवाक् कामिवल्लभः । नीलकण्ठः पुष्कराह्रो ।"-कल्पद्रुम (f) "सारसो रसिक: कामी नीलामो भणितारवः" (मणितारक: -- M.W.) “नीलकण्ठो रक्तनेन: काकुवाक् कामिबल्लभः ॥” –राज निघण्टु - धन्वन्तरि 4. The information brought together in section A of the last paragraph shows that at least four different varieties of Crane have been recognized in literature, viz., कञ्च, पुष्कराहब, (v.1. पुष्कर, पुष्कराख्य), सारस, and कुरर. These are actually the best known members of the family since the others are of rare occurrence and have not been known to visit India during recent times. The attention of classical poets and dramatists has been chiefly confined to two of the commonest, the Common Crane and (8) "सारसः सुस्वर व नीलाङ्गश्चितकन्धरः । रक्ततुण्डो रक्तनेवो रक्तपादोऽस्रवल्लभः ॥३ 1. कलानां कामकलानां अबू रो उद्भवो यन-फलाहकुर, as the Sarus Couple is known to indulge in love-dance and sport as a preliminary to consummation. This is at the bottom of other poetic epithets like कामी, कामिवल्लभ, काकुवाक् and रसिक for the सारस is the breeding crane of India. alone as 2. Compare मणिबीज for the pomegranate fruit with red seeds. मणितारक (having red-eyes, रक्तनेव) for the Sarus is out of place in Verse 120 at p. 331 of कल्पद्रुकोश where the text has suffered mutilation as at other places. 3. In this synonymy the epithets सुस्वर चित्रकन्धर (having a painted or beauti- ful neck), रक्तनेत्र and रक्तपाद hold true of the Sarus Crane while रक्ततुण्ड, रक्तपाद and अखवल्लभ (blood i.e. fBesh-loving) would seem to refer to the beautiful white stork which looks like a Small White Crane and feeds on frogs, mice, lizards, etc. It has evidently been regarded as a kind of Sarus and included here. No Crane has a red bill. The legs of the Sarus and the Great White Crane are merely of a pink colour and it is doubtful how far they can be described as रक्तपाद whereas the white stork has a blood-red bill and red legs and feet, the eyes brown. For Storks sce Art. 81. 312 Birds in Sanskrit Literature the Sarus while the harsh-voiced Demoiselle is mentioned only occasion- ally either as or simply as r. During the later Vedic period when. the Brāhmanas and the Samhitäs like the तैत्तिरीय, वाजसनेयी, etc. were com piled the Flamingo (Art. 83) and the Common Crane, both very common in the North-West and further East, were the first to be named or and respectively. It is quite probable that the resident Indian Crane, with a trumpeting call similar to that of the Common Crane, was also in- cluded within the terms. Later on it came to be distinguished from the Common Crane principally because of its red head and larger size and name -. The lexicographers, as seen from the synonymies collected in section B, have since maintained the distinction between the Common Crane as and the Indian Crane as or and treated the other species. of Crane simply as varieties of the Sarus. The next step was probably to separate the Demoiselle as कुरर, नीलाङ्ग सारस, and कर्करेट, the Great White Crane as पुष्कर or श्येन-सारस, and the Black necked species as नीलकण्ठ-सारस as we shall presently see. That is how we find and put together and all the rest either defined as ur or put under that name in mixed synon- ymies like those in B (f), (g), and (h). At the same time a vague con- sciousness that they were all allied forms, i.e. were merely varieties of was also present and we have a name like for the Demoiselle with a harsh note quite unlike that of the trumpeting Cranes, and the Sarus proper described under the name of in the second introductory chapter of the TT. The Buddhist work fera (circa 300 A.C.) has a verbal form from root for 'trumpeting of an elephant (M.W., Appendix) which makes it highly probable that the term was applied principally to such Cranes as have a trumpeting call note. कुछ 5. The first equation with and was synonymous terms, though slightly incorrect, may be taken to imply that they refer to two birds possessing some features in common. The name क्रुद्र-क्रुञ्च (क्रुञ्च-कौटिल्याल्पीभावयोः, to be crooked or to shorten) stands for a bird capable of curving or contracting some important part of its body, e.g. a long and flexible neck, and क्रौञ्च (शुञ्चेव आकृतिरस्य) for one resembling the कुञ्च Allied to root क्रुद्र-कुच् is the root which means 'to curve or bend' and also 'to sound'. Root again may have contaminated the root and the idea of 'making a sound' is perhaps involved in or associated with the word. During the later efgar and wg period and meant Flamingo, and the Illustrative passages from literature are quoted later on.

• • The rendering of

and as "the curlaw on snipe" in the Vedic Index of Names and Subjects is pure guesswork and wholly incorrect. For Curlaw and Snipe see Art. 72. Similarly the entry-an osprey' against on the authority of some lexicon in M.W. is incorrect and is due to a misunderstanding of the name which means both a crane (the a) as well as the fishing Eagles including the Osprey (Arts. 50 and 52). Cranes Common Crane, the former having a very long and flexible neck and the latter a long neck and a powerful voice: (i) अद्भ्यः क्षीरं व्यपिवत् त्रुङ्गिरसो धिया। वा. सं. 19.73 (ii) इन्द्राग्निभ्यां क्रुञ्चन् । Ibid. 24.22; मैत्रा. सं. 3.14.3 (iii) ऋञ्चौ श्रोणिभ्याम् | Ibid. 25.6 (iv) क्रौंच बृहस्पते : ( सामन्) । छान्दोग्योपनिषद् 2.22 313 (v) वाग्वं कौश्चम् | ताण्डघब्राह्मण, 11.10.19 (vi) उच्च क्रौञ्चमिव वषट् कुर्यात्स्वर्गकामस्य । हिरण्यकेशी श्रौतसूत्र, 21.2.44 In the first three of the above passages and refer to the Flamingo as a long necked bird having the power of separating site from a (Art. 83). The others refer to the Common Crane with a loud and sonorous trumpeting call which is the relevant element in each case. According to the commentary on Aphorism, 11 of the average the enfat hymns have to be recited in a tone lying between the 3 (low) and the (high) defined as are or which would seem to connect the bird and its name with the (to cry) or high note. 6. The synonymies in B (ii) describe the birds as 'birds of the autumn' (f) and 'flying in formation' (f), while is a with a harsh voice' (खरशब्द, अपस्वर).). The epithets वत्रचन्चु (curved or bent bill), (having red in the plumage), (living on minute water plants) and g(lotus-eyed) belong to the Flamingo, regarded as a kind of. The equations in B (iii) exclusively refer to the the Demoiselle Crane, as te corresponding to its Hindi name, fear, both after its call, 'kurr-kurr-kurr' (to red.). The series in B (iv) contains a mixed list of names and adnouns apparently for the Sarus alone but including the Great White Crane ( पुष्कराहब, श्येनाव्य), the Black-necked (fres) and even the White Stork (uz) regarded as a allied to the Great White Crane (Art. 81). All these will be dealt with more fully when we take up the individual species for consideration. Returning to the term which is also specific for the Common Crane it is to be noted that in later literature it has been utilized as a base for coining the names of some Storks, Herons and also the Flamingo, all sharing the common feature of a long and flexible neck with a tor Crane; and which have happily been described as far (resembling the in general outline) by at 4.48 of his book. We thus have f for the Purple Heron; for the Bitterns and Night-Herons (Art.82); eft for the Spoon-bill (Art.79); far for the Black Stork; and are for the Flamingo (Art.83), and finally the Open-bill Stork has been mentioned simply as a in the following:-

• Marathi Tr is directly from Sansk. for this Crane. 314

Birds in Sanskrit Literature "क्रोधश्च पुटेन कुश्चितवपुः शम्बूकमन्वेषते ।" सुभाषित Page 14 The phrase gay describing the attitude of the bird in action is worth noting, for it strengthens the derivation of and from to 'curve. or bend'. Similarly the term a means (i) a water-bird in general, e.g., in “अम्बुसारस”–कथासरित्सागर, 70.59 and क्षुद्रसारसाः of कल्पद्रुकोश, p. 331 and राजनिघण्टु, p. 471; (ii) any Crane and specifically the Indian Sarus according to the rule "सामान्योऽपि विशेष वर्तते"; * (iii) a Goose in बृहत्कथामञ्जरी 9.1,145; 359 and in शिशुपालवध 12.14 (cf. also 'चङ्गारसौ हंसे, from the शब्दार्णव quoted by वल्लभदेव in his commentary on the latter). That the Indian Crane, though popularly named as #r, was known to be a kind of is clear from the story of sage ateff, cursing, out of righteous indignation, the fowler who killed the male of a pair of the birds engaged in love on the sands of the HT: तस्याभ्याशे तु मिथुनं चरन्तमनपायिनम् । ददर्श भगवांस्तन क्रौञ्चयोश्वारुनिस्वनम् ॥ तं शोणितपरीताङ्ग चेष्टमानं महीतले । भार्या तु निहतं दृष्ट्वा रुराव करुणां गिरम् । वियुक्ता पतिना तेन द्विजेन सहचारिणा । ताम्रशीर्येण * * मत्तेन पत्रिणा सहितेन वै ॥ रामायण, 1.2.9-12 The poet's description of the birds possessing a beautiful voice and a red head leaves no doubt as to their identity with the Indian Sarus which, it may be pointed out, is the only resident and breeding ty of India. Despite the extended use of the terms and #, and the mixed synonymies noticed above, it is, however, possible to determine the names and epithets appropriate to the different species of Crane found in India with a very fair degree of approximation and an attempt is made in this direction in the following paragraphs. 7. The Eastern Common Crane (45") is a medium sized Crane of a light to rather dark grey colour with long neck and legs. The bald crown. is black in front and red behind, the bill dull green and the legs black.. The eyes are red, brown or even yellow (F. Finn). The tertiary plumes of the wing are particularly well developed, long and loose textured which this Crane, more than others, has the power of raising and showing off though all Cranes do so to a more or less degree. Elegant in form and for the Common Crane as

• This rule applies equally to the specific name of t

against the general ineaning of the term-any Crane'.

• • राम, the author of the तिलकव्याख्या on रामायण (Bombay edition) had

apparently no clear idea of the 1s for he explains it as a bird having a red crest like the Common Cuck- कुत्रकुटादिवत्ताप्रवर्णशापंगत चूडायुक्तन which is incorrect. No Indian Crane has a crest. 315 carriage, it is "the Crane par excellence', occurring in flocks, often of large size, throughout North India and south to Deccan in the cold weather. It is very destructive to the crops. Like the Sarus it has a very fine. trumpeting call, uttered both on the ground and in flight. It is known as कुरुंच (fr. फौन्च) and कुलग* in Hindi and being the commonest Crane of North India is the proper of Sanskrit literature. In the following examples the wailing cries of hundreds of women have been compared with the trumpeting calls coming from large flocks of the Common Crane, but due to the nature of the simile and poetic necessity the birds have been mentioned in the feminine gender (): Cranes जज्ञेऽथ तासां संनाद: क्रौञ्चीनामिव स्वनः । रामायण, 2.39.40 क्रौञ्चीनामिव नारीणां निनादस्तव शुश्रुवे । आर्तानां करुणं काले कोशंतीनां सहस्रशः ॥ Ibid. 2.76.21 According to fe, 12.64 a person stealing cotton-fabrics is condemned to be reborn asaौच (कार्पासतान्तवं चो), the reason for which would seem to lie in the long disintegrated tertiary plumes drooping gracefully over the short tail of the bird. The grey colour of hand-spun and hand-woven cotton fabrics is an additional reason for selecting the Common Crane with a grey plumage. In the alternative fea may mean a long warp prepared with yarn ready to be placed on the loom for weaving. This would seem to agree with "" To 13.9.17 based upon the flight of Cranes in long skeins. The Demoiselle and the Common Cranes both appear to travel together (Whistler) and this is borne out by the following passage relating to their return journey from India:- जलाप्लुतानीध्य महानदीनां सुगाति ! हंसा: पुलिनानि हृष्टाः । गताः श्रमं मानसवासलुब्धाः स सारसा: क्रौश्चगुणानुविद्धाः ॥ --हरिवंश, 2.95.13 The 'aren are the tengerent, the Demoiselles flying in mixed formations with the Common Cranes: The phrase is worth noting in connection with both "रज्जु: कौञ्चम्" and कार्पासतान्तवम्. 8. The Sarus or Indian Crane (58") is a huge french-grey bird with the bare head and upper neck of a red colour, becoming bright scarlet

• The story of the कुलिङ्गमिथुन related in भागवत 7.2.50-56 is cleady based upon

that of the faga in the ar. There it is the female (fr) which is trapped by a fowler and the male cries and bewails his own and his young ones' lot. In the mean time he too is killed with an arrow by the fowler. The Common Crane is known as "Kulanga" (Kulangi in F.B.I.) or perhaps as 'Kulinga' in Telugu and the author would seem to have used the Telugu name for purposes of the story though the word is also used in the water. The use of the Telugu name of the Common Crane probably goes to show that the author was a South-Indian. The great Sanskritist, C. V. Vaidya, also held a similar opinion which is recorded by Winternitz in his History of Indian Literature, Vol.1, p. 556, f.n. 3, Calcutta, 1927. Birds in Sanskrit Literature during the breeding season. The legs are pink, the eyes red, and the bill of a greenish colour. The Sarus is "always to be found in pairs usually accompanied by the last hatched young" and hence the Sanskrit name or adnoun मिथुनिन् मंथुनी for "They are most affectionate birds, pairing for life, and if one is killed the grief of the other is quite distressing" (S. Baker). Salim Ali, an authority on Indian bird-life and a keen observer, remarks that the devotion of a pair of Sarus to each other has earned them a degree of popular sentiment amounting to sanctity, and if one of a pair is killed the survivor haunts the scene of outrage for weeks calling distractedly, and has been known to pine away to death. Emperor Jehangir also relates in his Memoirs a most pathetic and touching example of a Sarus sitting continuously and without food upon the bones of its mate so much so that when the dying bird was lifted up its breast was found to have been eaten into by worms and maggots. It was such knowledge o the Sarus that made reftfs lose his temper with the fowler who killed. one of a pair of them. The reason why the exemplary conjugal devotion of Sarus has not received poetical recognition in Sanskrit literature, excepting the Rāmāyaṇa, is to be found in the that the similarly devoted couples (the Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck, Art. 84 C) would seem to have gripped the imagination of the Indo-Aryans from the Vedic times as both the Rgveda and the Atharva-Veda mention. them in couples. It is therefore more than probable that the Indo- Aryans were already familiar with them before they got to know the Sarus whose habitat does not extend beyond the Indus.* 9. The Sarus Cranes are essentially birds of well watered open plains. and avoid hills, forest country and desert lands. Their flight is powerful but they rise slowly and seldom fly at any great height from the ground (Salim Ali). Like all Cranes they indulge in dancing. more so in the breeding season than t other times, which is much less graceful than their dignified quiet walk (S. Baker). The call is a fine trumpet uttered morn- ings and evenings, and if the pair happen to feed apart during the night they keep in touch by constantly calling to each other as the also do. They are much less gregarious than other Cranes and move from their favourite grounds in small flocks only if forced by drought or other cause and at such times they adopt the usual V-shaped flight. couples 10. Lexical adnouns for the Sarus are लक्ष्मण * *, रक्तमस्तक, मिथुनिन्, मणितारक, etc. for the male and These are self-explanatory but the name for the female Sarus call for a few remarks. as a bird-name is a homonym and belongs to (i) the Great Bustard who bellows like a bull (f- 316

• The Burmese Sarus is very similar to the Indian but is of a darker colour. Being

more of a forest-bird it flics much higher and is far moe shy than our Sarus. It occurs in Eastern Assam. The call, like that of his Indian cousin, is a beautiful trumpet-"a fine sound when it rings out in the early dawn of a clear Indian winter morning" (S. Baker). Its Assamese name is कुरसंग (कुरचंग ).

• • one possessing a distinctive mark (), e.g. a red or white head

contrasting with the body colour; also handsome or beautiful-लक्ष्मण: श्री शोभायुते as in afa. farafor. Cranes 317 Art. 63), and (ii) the Bittern with a booming call in reed beds by the water-side (fifa-Art. 82). In the latter sense the name may well be applied to the Sarus as well but as the lexicons have no feminine form of and give instead for the female there is good reason to believe that the proper name or adnoun for the Sarus is गोनन्द and not गोनदं. Fortunately however the faulere mentions this name: "पुत्रप्रियांल्लोहपृष्ठान् गोनन्दगिरिवर्तकान्" – 1.151.44 The confusion between and is probably on a par with fre and fry for the fir tree (M. W.) and is due to a graphical error of copying from MSS in an older script. The correct names for the male and female Sarus should thus be and in the sense that a couple per- form their marital rites on the ground: गवि भूमौ जलाम्याशे वा सुरतानन्दो यस्य. ** 11. A few of the Sutras of Apastamba dealing with the question of particular birds permitted or not permitted as food are as below: “कुक्कुटो विकिराणाम्”– 1.5.17.32 "प्लव: प्रतुदाम्" - "क्रव्याद: "- » » » 33 » 34 "हंसभासचक्रवाकसुपर्णाश्च"-,,,,35 “क्रुश्चक्रौञ्चवार्धाणसलक्ष्मणवर्जम्” "" " 36 The last aphorism quoted above permits three categories of birds as food, viz., (a) the Flamingo, (b) the Common Crane, and (c) the Hornbill, but makes an exception in favour of , i.e. the Sarus Crane. Both Hara- datta in his and Dr. Bühler in his translation (S. B. E. Vol. 2, 64-65) have missed something in explaining this particular aphorism. a fore being an unknown thing to both, they have treated it simply as an adjective of and translated the compoud literally as the "leather- nosed Lakshmana" thus creating a non-existent curiosity, 'a leather-nosed Sarus'. For as the Hornbill see Art. 42 and for, the Flamingo, Art. 83. As regards the correct interpretation of the itself it will be noted that Sütras Nos. 32 and 33 permit the whole of the fafer and g classes of birds as food subject to only one exception in each case. Sūtras 34 and 35 are entirely prohibitory while No. 36, as suggested by Bühler and Hara-

• Lexicons do not give the masculine form of tft.
  • Suhstituted for 'गवि जले नन्दतीति' of शब्दकल्पद्रम. It will be noticed that my ex

planation of the term is based on the quotation from the Ramayana given in para. 5. 318 Birds in Sanskrit Literature datta, each in his own way, permits some and prohibits one or more of the birds named in the list. Reading Sūtra 36 with No. 34 Bühler is of opinion that the mainly vegetarian, and therefore not कव्याद, च and t are permitted and the वाघ्र णिस-लक्ष्मण (singular) is disallowed. On the other hand Haradatta holds that the latter alone is permitted and both and are disallowed. Now that we know that are too is a particular bird and that one was sacrificed to god far as a most favourite dish of his (Art 42), Bühler's interpretation is obviously the correct one and we have only to add the Hornbill to the Flamingo and the Common Crane to complete the list of three great birds permitted, leaving out the (ar) as an exception. This finds support from a somewhat similarly worded Sūtra in another Smrti which permits वाघीणस with विष्किर birds like तित्तिर, मयूर, etc. :- पक्षिणस्तित्तिरिकपोतकपिञ्जलवाधीणस- मयूरवारणावारणवर्जाः पश्च विष्किराः । बौधायनस्मृति, 1.5.154 Here, it will be noted, the first five out of the six faf birds including the (same as a forer) are permitted while the last, viz., the ar (the Great Bustard, Art. 63) is not allowed. All Cranes are good eating and the reason for the exception in favour of, the Sarus, is to be found in the extraordinary devotion observed between the Sarus couple which has endeared them to the Indians from very ancient times.** It is also worth noting that poet includes and but not the Sarus in the list of water-birds recommended as food by to Rama when the latter made a long halt at the Pampå lake (para. 15 below). 12. The Hooded Crane (35") is of a dark grey colour with the neck and the whole head except the bald red crown, pure white in contrast with the rest of the body colour. The bill is yellowish horny, the eyes orange-brown, and the legs horny-black (Finn) though the colours of these parts are slightly different according to the F.B. I. Breeding in Eastern Siberia and Japan it migrates south to China and in smaller numbers to Eastern Assam within Indian limits. It is possible that in the

• The fif, chapter 51, disallows all five-toed animals and all birds

except these expressly named "शशकशल्लकगोघाखङ्गकूर्मवर्ज पञ्चनखमांसाशने सप्त- रानमुपवसेत् । तित्तिरिकपिञ्जललावकवतिकामयूरवर्ज पक्षि-मांसाशने चाहोरात्रम् ।”

• • The voice and sight of a Sarus couple are amongst the best of auguries:

इष्टार्थसिद्धिः सकलासु दिक्षु ससारसद्वंद्वविलोकनेन । श्रुत्वाय पृष्ठे निनदं न गच्छेत् सिध्यत्यभीष्टं गृह एवं यस्मात् ॥ वामेन योषिद्धनलाभकारी शब्दस्तपात्रे नृपतोऽर्थलब्ध्यै । पाचंद्वये सारसयुग्ममेकं कृतारवं जल्पति कन्यकाप्तिम् ॥ वसंतराज, 8.9-10, p. 234. The first and fourth quarters of the second verse furnish an additional clue to the significance of the adnoun (beloved of the pleasure-secker) for the Sarus. See f. n. 1, p. 311. Cranes long past it travelled further west and was known to the ancient Indians, may be even as an aviary bird in Royal establishments. The a according to Haradatta on the arruga, 1.5.17.36 quoted and discussed in para. 9 above, is of two kinds, one with a white head and the other with a red head: 319 "श्व तो लोहितो वा येषां मूर्धा ते लक्ष्मणाः ।” The श्वेतमूर्धन्, or श्वेतमरुरक-लक्ष्मण should therefere be the Hooded Crane and the लोहितमूर्धन्-or रक्तमस्तक लक्ष्मण the Sarus i.e. the Indian Crane. The Hooded variety being a bird of rare occurrence the w of the Sutra in question, as already pointed out in para. 9, must be taken to be the well known Sarus. 13. The Black-necked Crane (about 46") is slightly larger than the Common Crane and is known to breed in Tibet and Kokonor, not very far from India, and Frank Finn says that it may be expected to visit. India in winter (How to Know the Indian Waders, p. 67). The body plumage is greyish white and the whole of the head, neck and tail black. The bill is horny-grey or-green, iris yellow and the legs black. The bare skin of the crown is dull red. Like the Common Crane it has a trumpet- ing call. The breeding grounds of the Bar-head Goose also are the lakes of Ladakh and Tibet and if the ancients knew, as they certainly did, the home and habits of the Goose they must have known this Crane as well, and the face of the mixed synonymy, B (iv) (f) quoted above from and aft, should be this Black-necked Crane. It is mantioned with the Ruddy Sheldrake, the Bar-head Goose, the Pin-tail Duck, and other healthy and happy-looking water-birds (weer:') *as giving character to a Himalayan scene in the शिवपुराण under the name of नीलस्कन्ध कोच **: शोभितं चक्रवाकाद्यैः कादम्बहंसशङ्कभिः प्रमत्तसारसैः क्रौश्व नीलस्कन्धैश्च शब्दितैः ॥ The second रुद्रसंहिता, सतीखण्ड, 22.59 This Crane is therefore the नीलकण्ठ सारस or नीलस्कन्ध च 14. The Great White Crane (54") comes next after the Sarus in size and is mentioned as the महाकौञ्च with the कौच and सारस by पालकाप्य (Para. 3 A). It is pure white throughout except for the wing-quills which are black. The naked skin of the head is reddish, eye pale yellow, bill brown, and legs pink. Breeding in Siberia it visits North India in winter in small flocks. A large number of them was caught and taken to the Calcutta

• The Indians Saras is not a hill-bird and the compound must be

translated as above.

• • स्कन्ध also means 'the neck', "गलः स्कन्धे”–विश्वलोचनकोश Compare तुरङ्ग-

स्कन्धकेशाः, सिहस्कन्धकेशा: for the neck-mane. 320 Birds in Sanskrit Literature market about the year 1916-17 (Finn). They feed more exclusively on water-plants than do other Cranes and do not attack crops. Closely associated as it is with weedy tanks and Jheels it has been regarded as a kind of सारस and its specific names, पुष्कर, पुष्कराज्य, श्येनाव्य ("श्येनः शुक्ले" हेमचंद्र, hence 'श्येन सारस'-'the White Sarus), and पुष्कराह्न ( पुष्करे जले आकाशे वा ह्वयति * 'one heard calling near about water or in the sky') have been assimilated with those for the are in the lexicons. Its call is not a trumpet but a soft one which is syllabified in its Hindi name 'Kare-khar' repeated rapidly but rather softly (S. Baker). It will be seen that the Hindi arter**corres- ponds closely to Sansk. which is synonyous with or an adnoun for the पुष्कराह्न in हारावली. Not having a ॠष्ट or कौवस्वर (a trumpeting call) it is not one. f the birds whose loud notes are discussed in para. 17 below. It is rarely found on dry land and the name gereg as explained above is fully justified. and gga mention it by this name. azz 15. The Demoiselle Crane (33") is the smallest of India but very elegant both in form and demeanour. Unlike others it has a fully feathered head and wears a pair of pure white aigrettes springing from the region of the ear and projecting beyond the head in a beautiful downward curve. The crown is grey but the rest of the head and neck including the very long and lanceolate ornamental plumes overhanging the breast are black while the wings and the greater wing-coverts are blackish. The rest of the body plumage is grey. The bill is dull green, bright red and the legs black. It arrives in India crossing the Himalayas about October and returns in March-April in huge flocks, flying across the skies in broad bands often a mile or more long. It does not stay for any length of time in North Indian plains except as a passage migrant but makes straight for the peninsula where it attacks the rice and other crops. The call is a harsh 'kurr-kurr-kurr' distinctly heard below as a flock passes very high overhead. Epithets like a and are refer to its harsh voice contrasting with सुस्वर for the trumpeting Sarus, and it is the अपस्वर-or खर-कोन्च, कुर, and of the lexicons corresponding करकोंचा (ख) in Marathi, कुर्रा, करकरी and करकटिया in Hindi for it. The हिन्दी शब्दसागर also renders कर्करेटु as a kind of सारस'. It is also the नीलाङ्ग सारस of the lexicons because it is the darkest coloured crane of India. Like the Common Crane the Demoiselle too is a luxury for the table and is much sought after by sportsmen who call it by the name of (Prakrit , accepted as Sanskrit in afr. fat, as v. 1. for ). Its flesh was appreciated in ancient India as well and we find advising Råma to kill and eat the rich and fat Geese and Ducks, Coots

• Compare "कह के जले ह्वयति"--

रामाश्रमी टीका on अमर See also चक्र for the Ruddy Goose in M.W. and compare and uttering a call like that of a cart-wheel (Art. 84). the

• • It is distinguished in Hindi as it, the Chinese Crane from

Common Crane. Cranes (ra:, Art. 58), the Common and the Demoiselle Cranes frequenting the Pampå Lake: "तत्व हंसाः प्लवा: क्रौञ्चाः कुरराव राघव । X X घृतपिण्डोपमान् स्थूलांस्तान्द्विजान् भक्षयिष्यथ ||" X Rāmāyaṇa, 3.73.12-14. 321 Some thoughtless commentators have unfortunately rendered as 'frogs', as for example, in faster, Nirnayasagar edition, Bombay, 1930. 16. The identifications made in the preceding paragraphs are sum- marized below: 1. The Eastern Common Crane- 2. The Hooded Crane– श्वेतमूर्धन्-or श्वेतमस्तक लक्ष्मण, 3. The Black-necked Crane- नीलकण्ठ सारस or नीलस्कन्ध कोच, 4. The Great White Crane - श्येनाव्य-कुर र सारस; पुष्कराहू, व. 5. The Sarus or Indian Crane- रक्तमस्तक लक्ष्मण, (सुस्वर) सारस 6. The Demoiselle Crane कुरर, कर्करेट खर-कोच, नीलाङ्ग-सारस 17. As there is reason to believe that Sanskrit scholars have very hazy and often mistaken ideas about the and his cousins, barring of course the well known Sarus, and particulary as Dr. S.C. Law, F. Z. S., misled by the rendering of क्रोच as कोंचबक in Bengali in शब्दकल्पद्रुम, has identified the of Poet Kalidasa with the Pond-Heron or Paddy-Bird (Ardeola grayii) in his well known book, 'Kalidaser Pakhi (in Bengali), page 93, it is neceasary to add a few more words about the voice of the described by Kalidasa as a far carrying resonant sound ( frare). The Pond-Heron known in Bengal as 'koncha-Baka' "is a silent bird but invariably utters a low, hoarse croak as it rises, whilst at night, when the colonies settle down to roost, there is a considerable amount of querulous croaking and flutter- ing" (S. Baker in F. B. I.). Neither the occasional low croak nor the querulous croakings on the trees can come anywhere near the sonorous trumpeting calls coming from a flock of Common Cranes feeding in the rice fields or flying in formation high up in the air. The powerful and far-reaching call of the has indeed been stressed in the following description of a particular way of reciting a मंत्र:- "यत्क्रौश्वमन्वाहासुरम्" -तैत्ति. संहिता, 2.5.11. where the adjective arge refers to its high note. e commenting on "वाचे कोच:"– ibid 5.5.12 describes फीच as दारुणस्वनः पक्षिविशेषः, i.e. a parti- cular bird with a very loud call. At a sacrifice to secure heaven to the host () the priest must pronounce the exclamation in a very loud tone:- "उच्च कोचमिव वषट् कुर्यात स्वर्गकामस्य"-हिरण्यकेशी श्रौतसूत्र, Pt. 8, 21.2.44. Again, कोंचस्सर (कन्चस्वर) has been explained as follows in अभिधानराजेन्द्र:322 Birds in Sanskrit Literature "श्रीश्वस्येव मधुर: स्वरो यस्य स तथा क्रोश्वस्यैव मधुरारावके । क्रौञ्चस्येव अप्रयासेन विनिर्गतोऽपि दीर्घदेशव्यापी स्वरो येषां ते क्रोश्चस्वराः। क्रौञ्चसदृशेषु निर्हादिस्वरेषु ।” Sub Voice कोंचस्सर. "महया महया सद्देणं कोंचारवं करेमाणा ।"--"महता महता शब्देन दीघंतर निनादिनः क्रौञ्चस्येव बहुव्यापित्वाद् बहुअनुनादित्वात्। Ibid. Vol. 5. pp. 1445-46. The sौच mountain in the Himalayas is described as resounding with the loud calls of the birds: "क्रो व्वं महामन्यु *: क्रोञ्चनादनिनादिनम् ।" MBh. 9.46.84. The trumpeting of elephants in pain or when wounded with a shower of sharp arrows: "अभीक्ष्णं क्रौञ्चवन्नदति" -पालकाप्य, 3.5 (p. 385); "क्रौञ्चवद् विनदन्तोऽन्ये नाराचाभिहता गजा: ।" MBh. 7.20.52. The sharp neighing of a spirited war-horse: "क्रौञ्चवद् रिपुवधाय हेषितम्" । बृहत्संहिता, 97.7. 18. A selection from literature, illustrative of the associations and habits of these birds as also in support of the earlier remarks that the term सारस (स with आरस, having a loud call) has been used not only for the Sarus but also for other Cranes, is given below : "अद्यापि छिद्रं तत्पार्थ क्रौञ्चस्य परिवर्तते । येन हंसाध क्रौचा मानसाय प्रयान्ति च ॥ ** स्कन्दपुराण, कौमारिका खण्ड, 33.182 The arrival of the Cranes in autumn and their flight in formation: MBh. 3.183.10 क्रौञ्चहंससमाकीर्णा शरत् प्रमुदिताऽभवत् । सततमतिमनोज्ञः क्रौञ्चमालापरीतः प्रदिशतु हिमयुक्तः काल एषः सुखं वः । श्रेणीकृता व्यरोचन्त राजन क्रौचा इवाम्बरे । दृष्ट्वा च विमलं व्योम गतविद्युद्वलाहकम् । सारसारव संघुष्टं विललापातया गिरा ॥ ऋतुसहार, 4.18 MBh. 7.139.33. रामायण, 4.30.5.

• महामन्युः कात्तिकेयः क्रौञ्चनादनिनादित कौञ्चं शक्त्या विभेद——is the principal sentence,
• *This statement is based upon facts observed by the ancients that the migratory Geese,

Swans, and Cranes avoiding the higher Himalayas pass through the valleys one of which is known as the कोञ्चरन्ध. Cranes पंक्त्यः शरदि मत्तानां सारासानामिवाम्बरे । श्रेणीभूता प्रकाशन्ते यान्तः श्येना इवाम्बरे Ibid. 3.55.95 श्येन in the last line clearly stands for the श्येनाव्य (the Crane known by the name of श्येन, 'the white) or the Great White Crane, for no Hawk or Eagle is known to fly in numbers or in formation (श्रेणीभूत ) 'सारस' as a bird of the autumn, शरत्यक्षी, in the above passages is synonymous with कोच, for the Sarus proper is not a winter visitor ( शरदिमन्त) with us nor does it fly very high or in large formations. The Demoiselles may also be intended by the term सारस. श्रेणीबद्धाद् वितन्वद्भिरस्तम्भां तोरणस्रजम् । सारसः कलनिह्लादैः क्वचिदुन्नमिताननं ॥ हविवंश, 3.55.19. 19. Small numbers of Sarus, flying low in V-form have been compared to a decorative festoon hanging in a curve over an arch-way in one of the most beautiful similes of Kālidása: 323 रघुवंश, 1.41 But the poet would seem to be indebted for the beautiful picture to the following from the Rāmāyana: विपक्वशालिप्रसवानि भुक्त्वा प्रहर्षिता सारसचारूपंक्तिः । नभः समाक्रामति शीघ्रवेगा वातावधूता ग्रथितेव माला ॥ 4.30.48. ऋज्वायतां च विरलां च नतोन्नतां च सप्तर्षिवंशकुटिलां च निवर्तनेषु । निर्मुच्यमानभुजगोदरनिर्मलस्य सीमामिवाम्बरतलस्य विभज्यमानाम् ॥ A very large flight of Cranes probably the Demoiselles, called सारसपंक्ति in the text, is beautifully described in the following verse: स्वप्नवासवदत्तम्, 4.2. The charming association of the Common and the Demoiselle Cranes with the larger rivers, the Common and the Sarus Cranes announcing their presence in the wheat and barley crops covered by the heavy morning mist, their undisturbed happiness in the rice-fields combined with a cloud- less autumn, crystal waters and smiling flowers-all these have been re- called with affection. The ancients loved their birds and did not grudge them a share in the rich bounties of mother earth :- हंससारसचक्राः कुरैश्च समन्ततः । पुलिनान्यवकीर्णानि नदीनां पश्य लक्ष्मण ॥ रामायण, 4.30.63 प्रोद्धृष्टां क्रौञ्चकुरैश्चक्रवाकोपकूजिताम् (नदीम्) | MBh. 3.64.113. 324 बाष्पच्छन्नान्यरण्यानि यवगोधूमवन्ति च । शोभन्तेऽभ्युदिते सूर्ये नवद्भिः क्रौञ्चसारसैः ।। Birds in Sanskrit Literature मत्तक्रौञ्चावघुष्टेषु कलमापक्वपाण्डुषु । निविष्ट रमणीयेषु वप्रेष रमते मनः ॥ जलप्रसन्नं कुसुमप्रहासं कौश्वस्वनं शालिवनं विपक्वम् । harems. रामायण, 3.16.16. हरिवंश, 2.16.21. रामायण, 4.30.53. The Common Crane and the Sarus were among the pet birds of Royalty, e.g., the palaces of Queen Kaikeyi and Crown-Prince Rama had them: शुकर्बाहममायुक्तं क्रौञ्चहंसरुतायुतम् । सारसैश्च मयूरेश्च विनद्भिविराजितम् | Ibid. 2.15.34. रामायण, 2.10.12. The well-known hetaera, वसन्तसेना, of मच्छकटिक maintained a large aviary induding the area as a domestic pet: "एतेऽपरे वृद्धमहल्लका इव इतस्ततः संचरन्ति गृहसारसा: *।" Act 4, after verse 28. Compare the appreciative remarks of S. Baker quoted in the footnote to para. 8.

• • This would seem to contain an ironical hit at the institution of eunuchs in Royal

63 BUSTARDS 1. This family of birds is a link between the Cranes on one side and the Plovers on the other, the Stone Plovers being intermediate between them and the Plovers proper. Bustards are endowed with large wings and stand rather high on the leg; have small heads but rather long necks. They are ground birds affecting dry open country or grass lands. With broad and flat backs, their carriage, with neck and legs perpendicular to the body, is peculiarly their own The larger birds of the group fly heavily like herons but with necks and legs stretched out like the Storks, and "in general superficial appearance they are perhaps, most like the gallinaceous birds, especially in regard to their heads and wings" (Stuart Baker). When disturbed they run at great speed. Their young, like the common fowl's, are hatched covered with down, and can run about almost immediately after leaving the egg. Six species of Bustard occur in India, three of them as winter migrants and three as permanent residents. 2. The following Sanskrit names refer to these birds some of which, being crested, have been regarded as a kind of Peacock :>- and are (- a field or open plain, therefore, a bird that fre- quents these) as faf birds in and . These two names belong to the Great Bustard and the Florican respectively as we shall see presently. गोदवेडक and सारङ्ग (pied, or a horse) as प्रवुद and विकिर respectively in g. These are the Great and the Little Bustard respectively. It also is interesting to note that Persian 'kodan' like means both 'a Bustard' and 'a pack pony'. T, in M. Williams is an adnoun for the Great Bustard; . where and , adnoun for are the Little Bustard, in तिलशिखी are listed with synonyms for मयूर. agadta, in the Synonymous list for a Peacock in afa. fa-arafor the same as गुरुकण्ठ, faange, a kind of Peacock in M. W. is the Houbara. Birds in Sanskrit Literature कुरण्टक, v.1. गुरण्डक, incorrectly for तिलमयूर in विकाण्डशेष. This and the next three names refer to the Great Bustard again; cf for a kind of Peacock in M. Williams, the same as . 326 , (Desert-Stork) a kind of Crane in M. W. वारण, a विष्किर bird in बौधायन स्मृति 1. 15.154. विदोगय, a kind of Cock (कुक्कुट विशेष per Sāyana on तै संहिता, 5.6.22) and श्वेतबफ also per Sāyana on सै. ब्राह्मण 3.9.10. ferafera, a kind of bird in it. This and the next three names belong to the crested Bengal Florican. खिलखिल्ल, in the list of Peacock-names in अभि. चिन्तामणि. तूणबहिन्, in प्रयैनिकशास्त्र, 7.12; शावलि, in मिताक्षराटीका on याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृति, 1.175. अञ्जलिकर्ण, in सुश्रुत, 1.7.10. This is the lesser florican. 3. The Eastern Great Bustard is a winter visitor to the extreme North-West of the country. The fully grown male attains a length of three and a half feet and weighs up to 30 pounds. The Great Indian Bustard is larger and heavier with a wing-span of eight feet and weighs up to 40 pounds. He is in fact the largest and the heaviest land-bird of India corresponding to the elephant as the heaviest land-animal. The plumage is deep buff above finely vermiculated with black, the general effect being a rufous brown which is well described as “खदिर वर्ण" in कल्पद्रुकोश while the neck and under parts are white with a black band across the lower breast. The head carries a recumbent black crest. This magni- ficent bird occurs in pairs or parties in semi-desert land and about cultivation in the Punjab, Sind, Rajasthan, Kathiawar, etc., and the stately Cock can be spotted from a distance from its long white neck as he proudly struts about. He has an inflatable gular-pouch connected with a small open beneath the tongue. The call "ust uttered before daylight, is a booming cry, not unlike a distant shout" but when alarmed the note is a bark. When feeding, however, the members of a party keep up a sort of cackle. During courtship the Cock greatly inflates his neck and throat** and struts before the hens w th the tail raised into a

• Because of superficial similarity of a Crane () with a Stork (*)

the term has often been rendered as a-fa in the lexicons and commen- taries. Similarly a certain amount of resemblance between the Great Indian Bustard with his long white neck and white lower parts and the Crane or Stork is responsible for names like मस्बक and श्वेतबक for the former.

• • After a few preliminary attempts at inflation "out goes the whole throat down to the

breast, and that part of it next the latter swells more and more........and the lower throat bag gets bigger and bigger, and larger and larger, till it looks to be within six inches of the ground....and looked at in front, he seems to have a huge bag covered with feathers hang- ing down between his legs, which wobbles about as he struts here and there." (Hume quo- ted by S. Baker). The old name, ar, is thus seen to be after the Cock's dangling pouch suggestive of the trunk of an elephant. The elephant is a because his great strength enables him to offer resistance and this Bustard is also a 4ra he wards off or resists (arcafe) with his horrible smell-See paras. 4 and 10 below. Bustards 327 fan, drooping wings and the feathers of the body turned the wrong way about. At the same time he makes a deep moaning call, heard at a great distance. The food consists of principally large grass-hoppers and other insects but lizards, mice. young birds, etc.; grain and green shoots are equally welcome. In addition this Bustard has a "curious taste for snakes and the natives give it credit for being a constant slayer and devourer of these reptiles". (S. Baker). 4. The Great Bustard has a peculiar and very disagreeable smell when alive, and its flesh is not now held in much esteem. Dr. E. T. Aitchinson informs us that when he was on the Afghan Delimitation Commission, a flock of these Bustards was met with, and Lieut. Rawlinson succeeded in shooting one, but the stench of the bird was so great he almost thought of leaving it; it was so dark that he scarcely knew what it was that he had got, and the scent was almost enough to put off any one from even a new acquisition. This writer also refers to the comments of F. Finn 'on this curious smell of the Bustard'. 5. As the habits of both the Great Bustards (Eastern and Indian) are similar they share common names in Sanskrit. In the above list it will be seen that and is (bellowing like a bull) are after the bird's bellowing call corresponding to its name गुनाद (गोनाद-गोनर्द) in Hindi. The names गुरुकण्ठ and aged (thick-necked) are again for these birds with reference to their habit of puffing out their necks during courtship, while names like and गुरण्डक merely Prakrit forms of गुरुकण्ठ unless गुरण्डक is from गुर्वण्डक (laying a large egg). The Peacock is (woody-egg) and the eggs of the Great Indian Bustard are larger than those of former. would however appear to refer to the Indian form which has a white neck and under-parts and lives in semi-desert areas. This name corresponds to Marathi मरटोंक (मरु and टक fr. ध्वाक्ष, meaning बक); cf. also the Turkish name for the allied Little Bustard which means 'Sand-fowl'. der defines the female as ge but the author is incorrect in attributing a booming call to her. "' is however, the same as 6. Is it possible that the name (flower of the yellow amaranth) is independent of qs and really refers to the European Cock Bustard (found in the extreme North-West of India), for it fluffs out all his plumage and looks like a surprising animated giant white Chrysan- themum"? 7. The बौधायन स्मृति mentions वारण (वारयतीति one that wards off or for bids) as a विष्किर bird that must not be eaten :- "पक्षिणस्तित्तिरिकपोतकपिज्ञ- वाघसमयूरवाणा वारणवः पञ्च विष्किराः ।" 1.5.154. 1. Stuart Baker, Game Birds of India, pp.150-151. 2. Stray Feathers, IV.184. 3. H. G. Wells, Science of Life, p. 1144. Birds in Sanskrit Literature also means an elephant. The great Bustard, with its large size, weight and the forbidding stench, answers to the name in both the senses. The Chinese also consider its flesh as inferior. 328 8. It is also suggested that free of the following is very probably this bird :- "छ्गलः कल्माषः किकिदीविः विदीगयस्ते त्वाष्ट्राः | तं. सं. 5.6.22; तै. ब्रा. 3.9.10. for Sayanācārya in his commentary on the संहिता renders विदीगय as कुक्कुटविशेष which agrees well the Bustard's resemblance a gallinaceous bird and justifies its inclusion under the name of गोनर्द in the fवष्किर list by चरक; but in the wg he equates it with a which also agrees with this bird with a long white neck and white under-parts and looking 1 ke a Stork in the distance, being the expert artizan of the gods beautiful victims alone would seem to be appropriate for him, and that is what we find in the beautifully marked goat and the chestnut and blue Kingfisher, so that the Great Bustard with his "magnificent plumage" could very naturally be the third item in the list. The etymology of fr is however beyond me and I can only offer a guess that the word is Prakrit-fa' 'a bird' and दीर्घक-दिग्धक–दीगय, large; or fr. 'वि' and दिग्गज——दीगय, 'elephant'. वारण * as a bird occurs in कुणाल जातक (536) and बेस्संतर जातक, verse 2105. 9. The Little Bustard is quite a miniature of the great bird just described. It is only about eighteen inches long and weighs less than two pounds. It is however a very pretty bird, sandy buff above pencilled with black. The wings are black and white and the under-parts white. The neck and breast of the cock in breeding plumage are black with a white necklace and a white breast-band below i It is a winter migrant chiefly to the North-West including Kashmir and straggles as far east as Saharan- pur in the Uttar Pradesh. It frequents mustard fields, flies high, flutter- ing and skylarking about in the air, whence its other name, the Butterfly Houbara (Finn). It does not inflate its neck, has a very graceful gait and runs very fast on the ground. It has therefore been most appropriately named (=, black and white, & 'a pied horse') and described as s from its small size and habit of 'skylarking', and (thin- In both the Jataka stories वारण has been rendered as the हथिलिंग सकुन. In the वेस्सतरजातक the expression वारणाभिरुदा रम्मा can only refer to the boom- ing call of the Great Bustard, but in the commentary on verse 2249 the fer is also said to be capable of carrying away small children. Apparently this last name was applied to two different birds, the Great Bustard and the Adjutant Stork, See note on the wr bird, Art. 81. It may also be noted here that the Turkey-cock goes by the name of 'feel-murg'-elephant-bird, in Persia. If the word era for fe is not found in the lexicons it only shows that it has not been used in literature. Bustards 329 necked) as against गुरुकण्ठ for the great Bustard सारङ्ग as a विष्किर bird of सुश्रुत is certainly this bird. er also means 'a black and white horse' and it is more than probable that the name implies an underlying similarity of the breeding male with a smart pony decked out with silver trappings. The erect gait of the bird and its speed on the ground also are quite sug- gestive. That similarity with the horse did strike the ancients is apparent. from the vernacular names like (horse-heron) given by for गोनर्द of चरक, and Hindi घोरर (घोटक, घोड़ा) for the Great Bustard. An alternative • note of ढल्हणाचार्य on सारङ्ग runs “अन्यो कृष्णकर्बुवर्ण चटकाकारो विकिर" which is clearly reflected in "सारङ्गश्वररादार: कृशकण्ठ:" of कल्पद्रुकोश. It is interesting to note that one of the riddles posed in वाज. संहिता 23.11 is, “कि स्विदासीद बृहदद्वयः ?" Which is the great bird ? The answer in the next मन्त्र, is "अश्व आसोद् बृहद्वयः” । "The great bird is the a, the horse". Is fat the same as g? The riddle would thus consist of a double incaning of as an animal and as a bird : cf and the vernacular names noted above. 10. Macqueen's Bustard or Houbara resembles in build the Great Indian Bustard but is much smaller, being only about twenty nine inches in length. It is sandy brown above, beautifully marked with minute pencilling of black on buff. Both sexes have a black crest. It is known as fat in North-India which is from Sansk. far from the fine pencilling of black (feafga) in the upper plumage of the bird and the long crest. The equation from fas given above should be interpreted--- 'the तिलमयूर is a kind of कुरण्टक Bustard', otherwise it would be incorrect as the two are altogether different birds. The Houbara, when attacked by a trained Falcon and probably also in nature, protects itself by ejecting foul-smelling liquid excreta on the body of the attacking bird which gives up the chase in disgust. Would the name apply to this bird as well? Perhaps not. But it is evidently the हिंगुराज mentioned with वारण in बेस्संतरजातक, 2105, so named from the habit just described (fr. f, the evil smelling asafoetida). It is also possible that "aro-fe" is a compound name (fe- -) for the evil smelling Great Bustard: cf. an elephant in rut exuding scented ichor from the temples. The flesh of all Bustrads except the adult Great Indian Bustard is excellent. 11. The Bengal Florican is practically a black bird in the breeding plumage with wings mostly white, and back pencilled with buff markings. It has a long black crest and long black hackles on the lower neck and a tuft of still longer feathers hanging down from the lower breast. The male is twenty six inches long. Out of the breeding season both the cock and hen wear a plumage of mottled buff and black. They love cover and live in the grassy plains between the Himalayas and the Ganges though they have been found as far west as the Jumna. The male is known as in Hindi (fr., a spy and a to move? because of the bird's habitat and movements in grass cover) and उत्तृमोर (उलुप or उलूक, 'kind of grass' and मयूर, a peacock) in Assam, and are (qq) in Marathi. It has been a favou330 Birds in Sanskrit Literature rite for hawking and is mentioned by the name of तृणबहिन् in the श्यैनिक शास्त्र :- "नैकघा वाजिना सोऽयं तृणबहिया हतः ।" – 7.12. It is also probably the वारट of चरक and शावलि mentioned in the मिताक्षरा टीका on याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृति 1.175. Both these names evidently refer to the habit of the bird frequenting grass covered plains 12. The Lesser Florican or Likh is the smallest Bustard known, and is in form and general colour a fairly accurate miniature of the larger Florican. The cock in breeding plumage has neither crest nor hackles on the neck or breast but from each side of his head, behind the ears, spring a number of long feathers, and three of these on each side are the longest "sometimes reaching as much as five inches in length, and generally exceeding three and a half inches. As a rule, the three longest feathers are graduated, and though in some cases they are subequal, three is nearly always a great difference in length between these three feathers and the others, which may vary between one and two inches. These feathers, more specially the longer ones, are spatulate in shape". Evidently, therefore, the total number of such feathers is not less than five on each side. The illustration in The Indian Waders by Finn shows five, two small and three long. 13. One of the different kinds of forceps mentioned in , 1.10 was designed after the shape of the bill of the bird f which seems to be no other than the Lesser Florican with the separated feathers of the ear tufts jutting out well behind the head. Now if one raised one's palm to cover one's ears with the fingers spread out, the latter would represent the spatulate feathers in position about the bird's head, and the pictur- esque aptness of the name aft would be apparent. The Prakrit expression "fefe" for a palm or hand with the fingers branching out offers a very good comparison. It is explained as follows:- “अन्योऽन्यान्तरिता दश अङगुलयो यत्न सा दशाङ्गुलिः तामञ्जलिम् ।" आवश्यक सूत्र, p. 188. 14. Another Hindi name for it is for which is merely a truncated form of fafafere or feaf (playing, delighting in uncultivated or grass land). Both forms of Florican, particularly the breeding males, are in the habit of constantly springing or jumping up high above the grass, as a part of their love-play to attract the hens and the name clearly refers to

• Stuart Baker, Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, p. 200.

331 this habit. As however the crested bird is quafi and this bird is for in Hindi it would follow that the name though applicable to both was pro- bably reserved for the Lesser Florican. The original name may well have been ferrafer (@fe, 'a bird', i.e. a bird of the grass-land) or simply afe- 'the playful bird'; cf. for the sportive Wagtail. Bustards 64 STONE PLOVERS 1. In this article we are concerned with only two birds of the group, viz. the Indian Stone-Plover and the Great Stone-Plover. They form at very natural link with the Bustards and lead on to the Plovers proper, and are found throughout Old World. They are ground birds of a brown plumage, with a large head and large eyes, the latter necessitated by their nocturnal habits. During the day they rest on the ground in the shade of bushes or a grove of trees. The call of the Indian Stone-Plover is mostly heard during the night (after dusk), more particularly on moonlit nights -a series of sharp and clear whistling notes...pick...pick...pick followed by quickly repeated double notes, pick-wick...pick-wick...pick-wick..., and very often duets are indulged in (Salim Ali). The voice of the Great Stone-Plover which frequents river-beds and sand-banks is a harsh croak. though it is also heard occasionally piping at night" (Smythies). The piping call of the smaller bird is quite musical in effect, resembling that of sharp taps on a well-strung small drum and has indeed been described as "wild and musical". 2. The Stone Plover goes by the name of or in Hindi. चरकसंहिता has पानविक (v.I. पाणविक) in the list of प्रतुद birds. The name, from q4, means a 'drummer' and rf would be a 'pleasant drummer'. Now the Hindi name is directly from Sansk. af with and of the latter changed to and and the omission of fr so that both the names कलपाणविक and पाणविक belong to the Stone Plover. The मानसोल्लास mentions it as करवाण – vol, 2,276. 39. 3. hifare (large-headed), is a kind of bird in M. Williams and exactly corresponds to Hindi बड़सरी (v.l. बरसिरी), another name for the Stone Plover. There is thus tifare for both the Great and the Indian Stone- Plovers. 65 COURSERS & PRATINCOLES Three species of Genus Cursorius are found in India. They frequent dry plains and are of the size of a Lapwing. They are fast runners, so much so that like the spokes of a swiftly turned wheel their legs become invisi- ble, and the best known among them, the Indian Courser, found throughout the country, except East Bengal and Assam, is characterised by ivory or even china-white feet. It is evidently the of a placed in the group. Most editions of geefgar give vir instead which however has been rightly omitted by M. Williams as it does not make good sense. The Nirnaya Sagar edition mentions in the foot-note as an alternative reading, and this is given by M. Williams. Another name for the bird is for which is included in the quotation from a given by भट्टोत्पल in his commentary on बृहत्संहिता, 95.28. Its name in Telugu (Dura- wayi) also means 'a fast runner' and is the same as fear of grand 'Swift-foot' of Jerdon. The Pratincoles (Sand-Swallows or Swallow-Plovers) have short legs and Tern-like action and flight. They have Swallow-like bills with a large gape which helps them in catching insects on the wing. They hunt in flocks both on the ground and in the air. "They keep to the open ground ...running at great speed in short dashes hither and thither as they feed. on various insects and small grasshoppers. They very strongly and at great speed, constantly whirling and wheeling about as they go" (Stuart Baker). Two of the species frequent dry land while the third is associated with wide stretches of sand and shingle beds of the larger rivers. Many birds are known to perform "the broken-wing trick" when their nests con- taining young chicks are approached by man but the behaviour of the Pratincoles in this respect is particularly noteworthy-less so of the Ring- Plovers. Douglas Dewar describes his experience in the following words: "Swallow-Plovers were surrounding me. They were nearly all on the ground and striking strange attitudes. Some were lying on the sands as though they had been wounded and fallen on the ground; others were 1. Cassell's Book of Birds. 334 Birds in Sanskrit Literature floundering in the sand as if in pain; some were fluttering along with one wing stretched out limply, looking as though it were broken; while others appeared to have both wings broken." Hume also records a similar experience in Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. Dewar comments that "the little pratincole appears to be a bird having a singularly unbalanced mind while it is breeding", and again, "it would seem that the pratincole when in breeding condition, is sometimes so excitable that if one of a flock takes fright, the alarm is communicated to its fellows, and they then often behave as if attacked by an epileptic fit," The त्रिकाण्डशेष and हारावली get give names of some water-birds as below: "अथ सर्षपी हापुत्रिका खञ्जनिका । तुलिकास्फोटिके समे"–त्रिकाण्डशेष. "गोभण्डीर: पङ्ककीरः । कोयष्टिर्जलकुक्कुमः ।" Ibid. "गोभण्डीरः पङ्ककीरो। हापुवी राजभट्टिका ।" हारावली, अर्धश्लोकावधि "गझ गाचिल्ली तु देवट्टी। विश्वका जलकुक्कुटी ।" “शरारिराटिराडिच । हापुनी राजपुत्रिका" । जटाधर in शब्दकल्पद्रुम under राजपुत्रिका The extract (iii) from graft is from its datafa section which implies that the names in every half-verse are synonymous, but a compari- son with the extracts (i) and (v) from far and were shows that the equation "cre" is complete by itself and independent of the equation "हापुवी राजमटिका" which latter therefore corresponds to “सर्वपी हापुत्रिका खजनिका" of विकाण्डकोष and "हापुनी राजपुविका" of जटाघर. The second part of विकाण्डशेष, viz.," तुलिका स्फोटिके समे" refers to a different bird (Pipit, Art. 26-B). It is submitted that both the lines from graft belong properly to the fa part of it and have been wrongly placed in the अर्धश्लोकावधि section. No. (iv) would then be divisible into two equations : (a) गङ्गाचिल्ली तु देवट्टी, and (b) favent at each referring to a particular type of bird. Now as the name हापुका is placed with सर्वपी and खजनिका in विकाण्डकोष and with राजमट्किा in हारावली, and also as the last three names mean the Little Ringed Plover (Art. 71) it would seem that the author intends fare also for ii iii iv V the same bird. It has already been stated that the Little Ringed Plover's behaviour at the nest is similar to that of the Pratincole, though not so markedly, so that it is just possible that the name gryfarer was applicable to both. Considering, however, the particularly exaggerated reactions of the pratincole the name seems to have been originally meant for it and 1. Glimpses of Indian Birds, p. 206. 2. VOL.III, p. 231. 3. Birds at the Nest, p. 183. 4. Each of the above half verses consists of two equations each containing synonyms for a single bird and forms allied to it with, however, the exception of the first half of No. (v) which mixes up two members of the Ibis group-See Art. 80. Coursers and Pratincoles 335 came later to be mistaken for the Plover as well. This would explain the mixing up of the names of the two birds, and once gryfarer was equated with the Ringed Plover the author was under a necessity to give a separate synonymy for the Pratincole which he did with "विश्वका जलकुक्कुटी". Now जलकुक्कुटी clearly signifies a very small water-side bird (cf. जलकुक्कुटी and and if गङ्गाचिल्ली is a fer for the Rails and Crakes, Art. Gull, which is as big as a Crow if not larger (M. Williams, and Art.68), regret would be a most improper synonym for it. The name, therefore, belongs to a small bird otherwise known as first. This last implies a bird that moves and flies in all directions (fr) and the Pratincoles, as we have seen, fully answer to this meaning, and their small size suits the name of जलकुक्कुटी. विशुवि (विषुवि from विषु+वि a bird that flies in all dircetions) is one of the birds prohibited as food in afeefgar (Chap. 12) and is probably the same as fi gat as a bird name is included in the list quoted by भट्टोत्पल्ल from पराशर in बृहत्संहिता (85.28). We thus have विषुवि, विश्वका, and gryfa for the pratincoles. The very apt name of ge is based on human behaviour, e.g. fare, a Brahman, on being told by an astrologer that his little boy of seven would not live beyond a year, falls to the ground, calling bitterly, "My son, oh My son." "हा पुत्र पुत्र पुत्रेति पपात च ।" -लिङ गपुराण, Pt. I, Ch. 43-11 Compare also: “राजा ह्यशोकः पतितो धरण्यां हा पुत्र! शोकेन हि दह्यमानः ।"– दिव्यावदान, p. 415 Commenting on अनर्थराधव ( V. 8) रुचिपति उपाध्याय has rendered कुररी (Tern, Art.69) incorrectly as हापूती इति प्रसिद्धा चटकविशेषस्त्री, but the statement that हापूती (हापुत्री) is a चटक विशेष i.e. of the size of a Sparrow is correct for the small Indian pratincole of the larger rivers in North India is not over 6.5 inches in length. This supports the interpretation of a given above. 66 CRAB PLOVER This "very extraordinary bird" with a peculiar nesting habit has been placed in a family by itself. It is a Plover-like white bird (16 inches) with a black back. It nests "in colonies, often of great size, scooping burrows anything from one to four feet long in the sand or, occasionally among the loose boulders and rocks, in which it lays its one pure white egg" (S. Baker). It feeds mostly on crabs and hence the name Its breeding grounds are on the islands at the Adam's Bridge, Ceylon, and some islands in the Persian Gulf Ancient indian Law-givers were undoubtedly men of religion and some of them must have come to know this bird and its curious habits during their pilgrimage to Ramesh- varam situated on an island next to Adam's Bridge. Law-giver afers was probably one such and he has included a bird called in the 14th chapter of his Samhità in the list of birds prohibited as food for the twice- born Hindus of the time. This is perhaps the same as fuerat, a kind of bird' in M. Williams. Both are from fra 'a hole' or 'to conceal' and imply a bird that lives or nests in a hole. f, however, may also be from sea-coast, and would seem to imply a coastal bird (cf. mr-M. W.). Most probably, therefore, both the names refer to the Crab-plover which nests in a hole and along the sea-coast. No other Samhità or fa mentions these names so far as I know, nor do the commoner lexicons give them. Had the name applied to any of the North Indian birds nesting in holes* some at least of the lexicons would surely have given it. In the circums- tances may be presumed that sage af having known the bird during his visit to Rameshvaram made it a point to include it in his list not only as a curiosity but also to prohibit the Hindus of the neighbourhood from killing it for food, particularly as it is so easy to catch it in its nest-hole. All this is pure conjecture, and there may be nothing in it, and if so, the Crab-Plover of the extreme South must go like so many other birds even in North India, without an old Sanskrit name. In fact one has no right to expect Sanskrit names for uncommon birds even of North India, much less of birds beyond its limits, except perhaps as curiosities in royal aviaries.

• For example, Bee-eaters, Kingfishers, Bank-Mynas, and many others.

67 SKUAS The Skuas are large Gull-like birds seen along the Sind coast. They live on fish which they rob from Gulls and Terns, pursuing them in the air until they drop the desired morsel, which they then seize (S. Baker). Their call is a piercing scream or gull-like "gack, gack". There is no Sanskrit name for them, but from their general appearance and habits they would be included in the general name of age for the large sea-birds like the Sea-Gulls and others. 68 GULLS 1. Alfred Newton, the great British Zoologist and author of The Dictionary of Birds seriously questioned the wisdom of separating the Skuas, Gulls, Terns and Skimmers, all placed in the genus Larus by Linnaeus, into separate families (see Ency. Brit., 11th ed., Vol. 12, 714), and the last three were indeed so placed by Blanford and Oats in the first edition of The Fauna of British India (Birds), but, following the classification of Lowe, Stuart Baker has separated them into distinct families in the second edition and yet he admits the correctness of the earlier grouping of all three in a single family. Since I have followed throughout the plan of the second edition I must stick to it in the case of these birds as well. 2. Gulls, the "most beautiful dwellers of the coasts and marshes" are medium to fairly large sized birds with long, moderately broad wings, almost square cut tails and webbed feet. The bill is stout and wedge- shaped with the upper mandible hooked at the tip, and when hunting for food they usually fly with their bills nearly on a line with their body. The predominating colour of the adult birds is white with a grey mantle, varying in shade from the most delicate pearl-grey to dark blackish-slate, and the head often more or less marked with black in summer. The seasonal change is not great and affects chiefly the colour of the head. The young are a mottled brown and take three or four years to assume the adult plumage. They are grand fliers and show perfect mastery of the air and wind, remarkably quick and clever in their manoeuvres. They have voracious appetites and live mostly on dead fish, floating garbage, offal of all sorts, insects, grasshoppers, etc. They are in fact perfect scavengers of the waters and coastal areas just as the Vultures are on the land. They pick up their food from the surface of the water and never dive for it like the Terns, but they are experts in catching with their feet any tit bits thrown up to them in the air. They often swim and rest on the water floating highly like the Ducks. The Terns, on the other hand, are of a small to medium size with long, tapering wings, deeply forked tails, narrow and straight bills, short legs and small webbed feet. Expert on the wing, their flight is exceedingly graceful and when out for their fish food they carry their bills pointed downward, scanning the waters below with their searching eyes for an Gulls 339 individual fish or shoals of small fish at which they dive from a height of 10 to 20 feet. Unlike the Gulls they never touch any dead or putrid stuff. The colour scheme of their body plumage is, in the majority of cases, similar to that of the Gulls-black on the head, grey on the upper and white on the lower parts. Writing of these birds in his interesting little book, Birds of the Sea R. M. Lockley observes that the Gulls and Terns are closely related. "They seem to fly like embodied spirits clad in grey and white, though some have black hoods and some have black on their wings. The long-winged and long-tailed Terns are altogether more volatile and dainty and less aggressive than the larger and heavier built Gull-tribe." Both are sociable, breed in large dense colonies, and are very noisy when feeding in company and at their nesting grounds. 3. Of the nearly fifty known species of Gulls in the world seven are represented in India, four along the coasts and four of these occur also on large inland rivers, lakes, and marshes. All except the Sooty Gull and the Slender-billed Gull, which breed on islands off the Mekran coast and on the Mekran coast respectively and may be called resident birds, are winter visitors with us. The Brown-headed Gull breeds on the lakes and marshes of Ladakh in Kashmir and further east in Tibet. The Indo-Aryans may well have been familiar with the Gull and its breeding habits before they moved into India but at any rate they must have got to know about those breeding nearer home. 4. Four of the species that spend the winter in North India are briefly described below: (1) The Great Black-headed Gull (length 26", wing-expanse 68") has black head and neck, the upper parts pale grey and the lower parts. white. The bill is yellow and the legs and feet yellow to orange yellow. In winter the head and neck become white streaked with black but the summer garb is assumed as the bird leaves India for its breeding home in Central Asia by about March-April. Its great size and magnificent flight render it conspicuous wherever it occurs. In India it is found on all the great rivers. In addition to the usual food of the tribe this Gull has a bad reputation for stealing the young and eggs of other birds. Its call is a very loud raucous cry, much like that of the Greater Black-backed Gull, which is described as a low ha-ha-ha-ha, a braying ha-ha-ha, a deep keow- keow, a short barking note and a long drawn moan (Birds of America, 1936). (2) The Black-headed or Laughing Gull (length 16") is about the size of a Crow but with a much longer wing-expanse. In summer the head

• The male Gull invites the female for copulation but amongst the Terms either may

invite either, and, unlike most other birds, copulation may be continued by the Black- headed Gulls and common Terns even after the eggs have hatched (J. Fisher in Watching Birds, p. 173-Pelican Books). During courtship the Greater Black-backed, the Lesser Black-backed and the Herring Gulls indulge in communal aerial dances (J. Fisher in Bird Recognition. pp. 140 ff. Pelican Books). 340 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and neck are chocolate brown, the upper parts pearl grey and the under- parts white. The bill and legs are deep bright red. In winter the head and neck become white with a few dark spots here and there. It lives. largely on worms and insects, following the plough for this purpose. They also eat all sorts of grain, shoots of crops, sand cels, small fish, snails, slugs, etc. and at times young and eggs of other birds. In addition to a harsh "gek, gek" and a loud wailing "ka-yek, ka-yek" cry it also utters "long derisive though far from unpleasant ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha, from which it derives its name, 'the Laughing Gull', for seemingly it laughs and no great imagination is needed to assume that its loud cries are those of real mirth." "Some observers call the sound demoniac or lunatic laughter, but writer's ears it is the joyous, buoyant, free laugh of the open sea" (Birds of America). Numbers are found together flying and wheeling backwards and forwards over lakes, jheels and the larger rivers and when not feeding they rest either on the water or sands and banks. the (3) The Brown-headed Gull (17") resembles the Black-headed but the colour of the head in summer is ashy-brown instead of chocolate-brown. The bill and legs are deep red. In winter the head turns white. It visits the plains of Eastern India during the winter and its habits and voice are stern Indio dui. those of the Black-headed variety, following the plough for insects and worms brought up by the ploughshare. (4) The Yellow-legged Herring Gull (23" to 25", wing-expanse 58* to 60") is, like the Great Black-headed Gull, a large bird with white head, neck, tail and underparts, and a dark slaty-grey mantle. The bill and legs are bright yellow. Its call notes are similar to those of the common Herr- ing Gull, described as a loud and raucous series of "cack-cack-cac-cac-cac- cac; or sometimes a querulous scream, kuh-r-e-e-e-c, kuh-r-r-e-e-e-e-e-ah, mingled with cluckings and subdued hen gobblings" (Illus. Ency. of American Birds). Like others they are omnivorous scavengers and in

• Sanskrit lexicons mention (i) the white (te or far), (ii) the red (),

and the black () varieties of Rape-seed or Mustard (r) corresponding to Brassica Alba, B. Juncea and B. Nigra or Napus respectively but not the yellow (a) variety. A fourth variety is however mentioned by the name of a defined as grafer (of the colour of the feet of the bird) with (coming up naturally with the rains i.e. self-sown and therefore wild) and fire (not dying out, hence the same preceding). Now the variety Brassica Campestris, the yellow Rape-seed, though cultivated, grows wild in North India and is known in Hindi as tarer. It is, therefore, submitted thar देवसर्षप (cf. देवखान) is this yellow Rape seed and कुरर in its descriptive the Yellow-legged Herring Gull or the synonym, grafEET, is no other than Great Black-headed Gull having yellow feet. No other bird sharing the name (poetic for ) has been rendered as aufang, page 248. The synonym has really yellow feet. "fift" 'उत्क्रोश भार्या' in the commentary on gift given there is however incorrect. Gulls 341 addition are experts in breaking hard and soft clams. These they pick up from the shore in their feet and drop them on hard ground or rock from a height of 50 to 60 feet for the contents. They are coastal birds of Western and North-West India but straggle far inland to the larger rivers and lakes as far North as Kashmir and East as Cachar in Assam. 5. The ancient Indians had evidently noticed the similarity of physical features, close association with the water, and the noisy habits of both the Gulls and Terns and regarded them as closely allied forms, so much so, that they named the former (from roots , For make a sound: कौति, कवते, कुरति—कुररः) and the latter कुररी as if the former, with their heavier build and greater dash, were the males and the latter, with a graceful form and finer discrimination as to food, were the females of closely allied. species. It is also probable that with Gulls named as the smaller Terns were distinguished as कुररी on the principle, “स्त्री स्यात् काचिन्मृणात्यादिविवक्षापचये यदि" - अमरकोश, 3.5.7; c.g. we have वर्तक for the larger Common Grey Quail and af for smaller Rain Quail (Art. 55). Some of the Sanskrit lexicons mention only three birds sharing the name , viz., the Osprey, the Demoiselle Crane () and 'a kind of Eagle' (sce w and M. W.).* Both and place in their lists of 'Birds of Prey' (gr) for the Fishing Eagles including the Osprey, while both have 3 (very noisy) in the lists of 'Water Birds' (ar) for the noisy Gulls. But as both the Fishing Eagles and the Gulls are very noisy the terms and have been treated as synonymous both in literature, particularly Pali literature, and the lexicons. M. Williams' rendering of as 'a sca-cagle' is cer- tainly correct but it is not so on the authority of as we have just seen. The earliest homonymous equation for these noisy birds, barring of course the D. Crane which is a but not , but including the noisy Terns and the Curlew is "उत्क्रोशकुररौसमौ" of अमरकोश. The अभि. चिन्ता expressly includ es the Fishing Eagles and Osprey in the extended synonymy: "ak मत्स्यनाशनः कुररः", while the कल्पकोश includes the Terns and Curlew also with- in it:- (a) अथोत्क्रोशः स्त्रियां पुमान् कुररः खरशब्दः । (b) उत्क्रोशो मत्स्यनाशनः । (c) कुररो (? कुररी) जलकुक्कुटी । The first equation includes उत्कोश- उत्क्रोशी and कुरर-कुररी (cf. कुछ शब्दे, कवतीति कुरर: स्त्रियां तु कुररी-फातंत्रीय उणादि) as homonyms applicable to several different birds possessing a harsh voice (खरशब्द); the second to उत्कोश (=कुरर) as noisy fish- killing birds; and the third to g or as a noisy bird resembling a

• पा. स. म. renders कुरर as उत्क्रोश and कुरल;

कुलल (the same as कुरल, कुरूर ) is equated with (i) fishing Eagle), (iii) Frit, and (iv) a Cat. and कुररी as the female of कुरर, but पक्षिविशेष, (ii) गृधपक्षी (pointing to the श्रुतसागर सूरि, commentator of यशस्तितक चम्पू, renders क़ुरर as जलकाक at page 144 and the bird meant is no doubt a Gull. Birds in Sanskrit Literature water-hen, viz., the Curlew. Now since commentators like fer have interpreted उत्कोशी (रघुवंश, 14.68; see also commentary on चम्पूरामायण, 6, verse 90) it follows that the feminines et and get for the Terns and Curlew are included in the general and comprehensive equation, "उत्क्रोशकुररी समौ” of अमर. The several different birds sharing the names and distinguished as below: may be 342 (i) the fear is the Demoiselle Crane (Art. 62); (ii) the मत्स्यनाशन-कुरर, Osprey (Art. 50); (iii) the उत्क्रोश-कुद्रर "} (iv) the खरशब्द or उत्कोश-कुरर (v) the उत्क्रोशी-कुररी (vi) the 33 or कुक्कुटी कुरी ” (मत्स्यनाशन) Fishing Eagles ( Art 52 ) ; » » Gull; ,, Tern (Art. 69); Curlew, rarely (Art. 72). as perhaps in the - It follows, therefore, that the particular bird or birds intended in a given passage must be determined from the context, e. g. in the lists of gt: and प्लवाः in चरक and सुश्रुतः as explained carlier in this article; कुरर in association with water-birds like the era or would refer either to the Gulls and Terns or the Demoiselle Crane; and in a literature should be taken to include the Gulls, Terns and Curlew, for the Demoi- selle Crane would be included in term for all Cranes, and the Osprey and Fishing Eagles would fall within the general terms like and or eft. The feminine on the other hand always signifies either the Tern or the Curlew as the context may demand. It must also be noted here that according to a well established convention birds of prey are held to be rather inauspicious (cf. अनिष्टविहम in बृहत्संहिता, 47.47 and com- mentary of wr) and are not mentioned in passages descriptive beautiful natural scenery while they are inseparable concomitants of battle fields, burial or cremation grounds, etc. where the sentiments of disgust (aftwe) and fear (tr) are involved. Turning to the call notes of y, so common in similes, the reference is always to the sorrowful wail of women when in personal danger or when in fear of the loss of their near and dear ones. Such a reference to a large number of women crying over a threa- tened loss during the day time is to the Terns as birds of diurnal habits who gather in large flocks, crying plaintively, whenever their eggs and young are in danger. On the other hand, references to a single woman or a number of women crying piteously at night or before dawn are always to the Curlew or Curlews as these are chiefly heard at night and when on

• The Osprey is a winter visitor to India and as it is noisy mostly during the breeding

season it is seldom heard in this country though its call notes are a loud Kai-Kai-Kai (Salim Ali in The Book of Indian Birds). The epithet or adnoun Je, therefore, is not appli- cable to it though it is included in a general way within the term Jet for any Fishing Eagle. Gulls 343 the wing (Arts. 69 & 72) ¹. Bearing these considerations in mind it is not difficult to see that the numerous ge birds in the following passages relating to day-time scenes can only be the Gulls and Terns: कादम्बैश्चक्रवाकैश्च कुररैर्जलबुक्कुटंः । कारण्डवैः प्लवैहसँर्बकैर्मद्गुभिरेव च ॥ - महाभारत, 3.158.56 - भागवत, 3.21.43 ददृशुः सहिता रम्यं तडागं योजनायतम् । शरारिहंसकुररैराकीर्ण जलचारिभिः ॥ अस्माद्धंसा जलक्लिन्नाः पक्षैः सलिलवित्रः । कुरराः सारसाश्चैव निष्पतन्ति पतत्रिणः ॥ --रामायण 4.52.12 (Bom. edn.) रामायण, 3.15.6 (Cal. edn.) The sportive duels of Gulls or a Gull trying to snatch fish from a Tern in the air over the Tapti river is referred to as चटुलकुरद्वन्द्वम् in नलचम्पू, उच्छ्वास 6, verse 25. An important point worth noting in the above passages is the fact that the poets have taken care to mention birds that are on the water, at the water's edge, on the bank and those that fly in the air above, for it these taken together that give character to a lake or river scene. Coming to the later names for a Gull we have gift for the Black- headed Gull (M. W.) or, for the matter of that, for any Gull and which is perhaps from the following synonymy: is गङ्गाचिल्ली तु देवट्टी, विश्वका जलकुक्कुटी— विकाण्डशेष The name feet (Ganges-Kité) refers to the Kite-like scavenging habit of the Gulls picking up offal from the surface of the water or tit bits thrown up to them in the air which they greedily catch with their feet. Referring to the coastal Gulls Salim Ali remarks: "Gulls are to seaports and docks what kites are to inland towns and bazaars- efficient scavengers." The name देवट्टी (दिवि आकाशे अटति, देवाय क्रीडार्थ वा अटति) refers either to their magnificent flight or (refer refe) to their seasonal visit to the country from beyond the Himalayas (cf. aruar far for the Himala- yan Cuckoos, Art. 37). Gulls being essentially sea-birds who "swim excellently and can be seen even on the roughest day, bobbing up and down on the waves as happy as can be" fully deserve the picturesque names of ters (Wave-bird or Crow) and (Sea Crow). The latter term is wide enough to include, in a general way, all other sea-birds as well. Hindi (Dhomra in F.B.I. is probably a Bengali transliteration like 'Jol' for ) for a Gull should be from Sansk. onomatopoetic for 'uproar tumult' of festivity or strife (cf. आडम्बर, डामर, डमरू) and empha- sizes their screaming and scrambling habits. The equation, "ar ger" in वाचस्पत्यम् and शब्दकल्पद्रुम would seem to be based upon the story of an old eating the eggs of other water-birds related in the Mahabharata, 1. Illustrative examples from literature have been given in these articles. 2. For the second half of this synonymy see Art. 65. 344 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 2. 42. 32ff. No bird of the Goose family is known to eat eggs in a state of nature and it is probable that some egg-eating Gull like the Great Black- headed Gull has been called a gw in a mystic (2) or etymological sense of हिनस्तीति हंसः, and some old commentator perhaps rendered this हंस of story correctly by the local vernacular term of , a Gull. The lexico- grapher would then seem to have picked up the term as a Sanskrit feminine form and rendered it back as हंसी. The Gulls as a class, we have seen, are of great help in maintaining the cleanliness of the waters and the surrounding areas by making a clean sweep of all dead and putrid animal matter and it has also been pointed out that some particular species are of particular service to humanity by destroying large quantities of harmful worms and insects which if allowed to multiply unchecked would produce famine in the country, and history records how at one time the people of the State of Utah in North America would have suffered grievously but for the timely help rendered to them by the California Gulls and how they expressed their gratitude to these wonderful birds: "That at least one community has not been unmindful of the substantial debt it owes the Gull is attested in Salt Lake City, where stands a monument surmounted by bronze figures of two Gulls, erected by the people of that city 'in grateful remembrance' of the signal service rendered by these birds at a critical time in the history of the community. For three consecutive years-1848 to 1850-black crickets by millions threatened to ruin the crops upon which depended the very lives of the settlers. Large flocks of California Gulls came to the rescue and devoured vast numbers of the destructive insects, until the fields were entirely freed from them. It is no wonder that the sentiment of the people of Utah, as reflected through their laws, affords Gulls the fullest protection" (Birds of America, 1. 38). In India, also we have the Black-headed and the Brown-headed Gulls who follow the cultivator's plough, gobble up all the pernicious vermin exposed in the furrows and thus render a great service to us, and one would not be surprised if the Vedic Aryans too were fully conscious of their services and left a still more lasting memorial of their gratefulness to them. 69 TERNS 1. A tern in general outline is an altogether more gracil, more beautiful but a smaller edition of a Gull.¹ Unlike the latter it ha straight but thinner and more pointed bill, long pointed wings, and many species a deeply forked tail. In size they range from ten to twentoches in length. They have a beautiful plumage, black on the head and i, pearl to ashy- grey on the upper and white on the lower parts. Bilegs and feet are often red. They are as noisy as the Gulls but unlike em again they exclude offal and garbage from their dietary and live may on small fish, sand-eels, crustacea and insects. They are very active al seem to have a ceaseless flight which is buoyant, fast, easy and excengly graceful. They are "among the most beautiful of God's creature The beauty of their form is perfect. Their shape is a dream of comeline and their move- ments are the poetry of motion. Wherever there is a river lake in India, there you will see Terns. You cannot mistake a Tern; thim white body, the long racing wings, the easy flight and the freqs descent to the water are a combination of characteristics peculiar these feathered exquisites" (Douglas Dewar). 2. They nest, as a rule, in large or small colonies orad-banks along the larger rivers and the sea-coast, the nests being merillows scraped in the sand. We can form some idea of the reasons behisthis communal breeding if we recall the well known fact that people e particularly stimulated when working in cooperation in various ds like sports, community dances, social activities, war, etc. and in timsf danger group consciousness helps to create confidence and a sense security, and ensures ultimate success of an undertaking. Applying is analogy to social birds like the Flamingos, Terns and others it wotleem that the presence of large numbers on their breeding ground as the effect of 1. The reader is requested to read the first two paras of the meding article. 2. Compare the name आति (अत्-सातत्यगमने: one thi constantly on the move) for the allied form, the Skimmer. It is more than prols that arfer of the Rgveda meant a Tern as well as the closely allied Skimmer. The is discussed in the next article. Birds in Sanskrit Literature stimulating their sexual impulses which leads to simultaneous mating and breeding among them. In other words the Terns would seem to have realised in the course of evolution that their safety and survival in the struggle for existence lies in keeping together and breeding in packed colonies. As a preliminary to mating they indulge in lock-displays and social flights resembling the communal aerial dances of some of the Gulls, e.g. the Herring Gull. The courtship display of mated pairs includes (i) what has been aptly described as a 'fish-flight' where a bird with or with- out a fish is sportingly pursued and overtaken by another; (ii) swift glides from a height; (iii) slow-motion flights; and (iv) parading, bowing, scraping, stretching and 'scissor-billing' when on the ground. Both sexes brood the eggs and young and take part in feeding the latter, and some, like the Sandwitch Tern, are known to 'pool the young' of a colony after they are a few weeks old. They are extremely demonstrative in their affection for young and eggs, for "a human being has only to set foot on a sand-bank for a scene of great excitement to ensue. Sitting birds rise from. the nests, others arrive from the river,...and the air is filled with Terns flashing backwards and forwards and wheeling round and round overhead, their shrill plaintive cries indicating only too surely the presence of the eggs and offspring they seek to protect" (Whistler). They also appear to be very sympathetic towards their fellows that may get into difficulties. If one is killed the others in the neighbourhood will at once come and fly anxiously about uttering their plaintive cries all the time. Salim Ali's explanation of such behaviour when one has been actually shot down. into the river, is that "the unwounded birds think their companion has discovered some food and are anxious to share the spoils" and in the particular circumstances stated it would appear to be correct. Mated Terns, again, are very attentive to each other, and "one of the most charm- ing sights of a visit to a colony is to see one of these little, gentle creatures feed his mate as she sits brooding her eggs". 3. About fifty species of Tern occur throughout the world and India claims no fewer than thirtytwo of them either as winter visitors to her coasts and inland waters or as resident birds. Brief notes on some of the more important Terns found in India e given below: (i) The Indian Whiskered Tern (10") has a velvety black head and neck, ash-grey body and black abdomen. It is a resident bird of lakes and marshes. It breeds in colonies and makes a nest of reeds and rushes which is placed on lotus leaves or other water plants in lakes or swamps. When 346 1. R. M. Lockey in Birds of the Sea (1945), p. 17. 2. J. Fisher in Bird Recognition Vol. 1 (1947), pp. 124-150. According to S. Baker in F.B.I. (Birds), 1929, however, the Sandwitch Tern is very careless of its eggs. 'Pooling the young' refers to the feeding of the young in a colony by the adult birds irrespective of whether the young are their own, i.e., they are all fed in common. 3. T. Gilbert Pearson on the Least Terns (Ternlets) in Birds of America (1936). Terns 347 fishing a whole flock generally works in unison, commencing at the end of a lake and working their way to the other end, when once more they return to their original starting point. In this they resemble the Skimmer who, however flies over the water very low, just a few inches above the surface. The flight is most light and elegant, and the sight of a flock feeding is a really beautiful one. (ii) The Caspian Tern (20") is easily recognised by its great size, large red bill, black legs and feet, black head and grey and white body as it flies singly or in pairs over the larger rivers of India. It breeds on the lakes of Central and Western Asia, and the Mekran Coast within Indian limits. It is often mistaken for a Gull because of its large size and is known as u (a dialectical variant of ?) in Sind after its loud harsh cry. Describing its ways in The Birds of America, W.L. Finley remarks that its greatest anxiety seems to be to keep them (the young) crouching low in the nest, so that they do not run away and get lost in the crowd (of other young from the neighbouring nests). If a young bird did start to run out of the nest, he was immediately pounced upon by his own parents and pecked and beaten until he dropped flat on the ground or hid in the leaves. A similar trait was observed by the ancient Indians as we shall see. (iii) The Gull-billed Tern (15") is rather stoutly built and in point. of body-shape stands intermediate between a Gull and a typical Tern. It is pearl-grey above and pure white below but its stout Gull-like black bill and legs of the same colour help to distinguish it from other Terns of the same size. Its scientific name of 'Gelochelidon nilotica' (lit. 'Laughing Swallow of the Nile') is after its call-notes described by Dr. Ridgway as 'a chattering laugh' (Birds of America). It shows great courage in defend- ing its young. It breeds in Kashmir and other places in India and frequents the larger rivers lakes often singly or in twos and threes. It feeds on small fish and insects and like so many Terns and Gulls, is especially fond of grasshoppers. (iv) The Large Crested Tern (20"), which occurs in several races in India, is practically equal in size to the Caspian Tern but is readily distinguishable from it by the yellow bill and a well-developed, long, black and slightly curved crest. They are coastal birds and one sub-species breeds off the Mekran Coast and another off the Sunderbans in lower Bengal. (v) The Indian River Tern (15"-18") and the allied forms, the Black- bellied Tern (13"-14"), and the Tibetan Tern (15-18") are the com- monest Terns of North Indian rivers and lakes, the first two breeding in large colonies on sand-banks of our rivers, and the third on rivers and lakes of Ladakh and Tibet and winters in India. Other members of the group

• Smythies in Birds of Burma (1940). 348

Birds in Sanskrit Literature like the White-cheeked and the Common Terns¹ are coastal birds. All these have black heads and crests, grey upper parts and white or white suffused with vinous-grey lower parts. All have deeply forked tails. The bill, legs and feet are yellow or red. The Black-bellied Tern frequents also small ditches and village ponds for food. The River Ternlet (10") is practically a smaller edition of its larger cousin, the River Tern, which it resembles in breeding and other habits. as already noted in Ternlet, कुरिका as we Tern, a permanent resident The common Sanskrit name for a Tern is the preceding article, and for a small Tern shall see presently. The Indian River and the most numerous with us is known as g in Hindi as well. get for a female Osprey or Fishing Eagle (Art. 50) is merely a grammatical feminine of and the term is never used in literature in this sense because the names of all birds of prey like , , , , etc. are always used in the masculine irrespective of sex except in mythology where at, eft, and it are said to be the 'original mothers' of certain groups of birds in the Epics and Puranas and gut is occasionally used for the Common Kite e.g. in aut, 4.3 (see Art. 52). Moreover the Osprey breeds very rarely in India and its callnotes are seldom heard in the country as pointed out by Salim Ali in his Book of Indian Birds. The of literatures is therefore either the Tern or the Curlew according to context. It must also be noted that the cries of birds of prey have. always been regarded as inauspicious and are never used as a simile for the plaintive wail of women of noble birth like efter, or dramatic heroines like मालती of 'मालतीमाधव'. To render कुररी, in such contexts as the female Osprey or the Lapwing ((fecfen) is wholly indefensible. The Curlew breeds outside India and is only a winter visitor with us. The F of a, crying plaintively at the loss of her young, is there- fore the River or Black-bellied Tern, both breeding on the North-Indian rivers : विषादपरिप्लवलोचना ततः प्रनष्टपोता कुररीव दुःखिता। विहाय धैर्य विरुराव गौतमी तताम चैवाश्रुमुखी जगाद च ॥ बुद्धचरित 8.51. 1. Writing about the Common Tern, which is a winter visitors to India along the Mekran coast and is closely allied to our River Tern, E. H. Forbush says that these birds are useful to the fisherman as they serve to mark the schools of edible fish. These fish drive the small fry to the surface, the telescopic eyes of the Terns mark the disturbance from afar and when the fishermen see the gahering, plunging flocks, they put off in their boats, well knowing that their work lies there. (Birds of America.) 2. Suresh Sinha in gurê fefgut (Allahabad, 1941). 3. See Art. 68 for the different meanings of 4. रामायण, 3.14.19; म.भा. 1.66.58; मत्स्यपुराण, 6.31-32; हरिवंश, 1.3.107; ब्रह्मपु. 3.93-94; and other Puranas. 5. See Art. 72 for the curlew. 349 Terns rarely settle on the water, and "it is a pretty sight to watch a flock of Terns following a shoal of little fishes with clamorous glee, dropping one after another with a splash and rising again and chasing one another ceaselessly" (EHA). Such a scene is recalled in the following: Terns प्रसन्नसलिलाः सौम्य कुररीभिविनादिताः । चक्रवाकगणाकीणी विभान्ति सलिलाशयाः ॥ - रामायण, 4.30,59. क्रीडाकृतार्थंकुररकामिनीव्याहार (कुररकामिनी, कुररी) - यशस्तिलकचम्पू, p. 248 and the wailing of hundreds of women of Rāvana's household on the occasion of his death at the hands of Rama is reminiscent of the clamorous scene witnessed on a sand-bank when a large colony of nesting and brooding Terns is alarmed; विलेपुरेवं दीनास्ता राक्षसाधिपयोषितः । कुर्य इव दुःखार्ता वाष्पपर्याकुलेक्षणाः ॥ - रामायण, 6.110.26 Similar scenes are noticed elsewhere as well : स गङ्गामनुवृन्दानि स्त्रीणां भरतसत्तम । कुररीणामिवार्तानां क्रोशन्तीनां ददर्श ह ॥ –म. भा. 11.12.5. तासां नादो रुदतीनां तदाऽऽसीद् राजन् दुःखात्कुररीणामिवोच्चैः । - Ibid. 15.15.11 श्येनपक्षाभिमृष्टानां कुररीणामिवध्वनिः ।– प्रतिज्ञायौगन्धरायण, 4.24. The above passages, it may be noted, relate to events occurring in day time. , a falcon, it may be noted, is a bird of diurnal habits. The Whiskered Tern unlike others, as we have seen, constructs a nest of rushes and water weeds wound round a lotus leaf in a marsh or tank and has therefore been very aptly named पुष्करणायिका (पद्मशायिन्या in कल्पद्रुकोश ) explained as पद्मपत्रशायिका by डल्हणाचार्य on सुश्रुत and this is the same as पोक्खरसातकरें (v.1. पोक्खरसाति, i.c. पुष्करसाद-पुष्करसादी) for a water-bird in वेस्संतर जातक, verse 2104. The Vedic पुष्करसाद or पुष्करसद is therefore this Tern : कलविङ्कः लोहिताहिः पुष्करसादस्ते त्वाष्ट्रा वाज. संहिता, 24.31 1. This is a compound name for a single bird but has been incorrectly split up into here and E, and rendered as two different birds in the Pali Dictionary (P.T.S. edition). 2. पुष्करसाद is renderod simply as lotus-sitter' by Keith on तैत्ति संहिता, 5.5.14; पुष्करसर्प भ्रमर इत्येके by सायण on ibid, and पुष्करभक्षी पक्षिविशेष: by उब्बट on वाज. afgat. It is hardly necessary to state that no Tern feeds on any part of the lotus plant. 350 Birds in Sanskrit Literature being the expert artisan of the gods three beautiful creatures have been named as his sacrificial victims at the अश्वमेध - (i) कलविङ्कi.e. the पीतमुण्ड afg, the Weaver Bird which builds a beautiful rain-proof nest (Art. 22); (ii) लोहिताहि, the prettily marked Coral Snake; and (iii) पुष्करसाद (one nesting on a lotus leaf), the Whiskered Tern. This Tern is no bigger than a Ternlet and has been correctly called and its nesting habit as also its love for the young have been accurately described by gar auf (see para. 3 (ii) above): अर्द्धाभ्युद्गतपतकं परिलुठत् पतेषु पङ्केरुहाम् । प्रायः पोतकजातकं कुररिकाः पक्षैः समूहन्त्यमूः ॥ - तपतीसंवरण, 3.2. fe means a small Tern or Ternlet but the poet would seem to have used the term with a feeling of compassion also (i) as is clearly implied by the earlier pitiful remarks of the boy-hermit in the drama: अहो पतविणामप्यतिकृपणः संसारधर्म: । In the above context the expression arc: has been correctly rendered as gaar by the commentator. 70 SKIMMER OR SCISSORBILL The Skimmer is a white Tern-like bird with a black cap, a white collar. and very long black wings. It is purely a bird found on the larger, broader rivers where their course is placid, flowing smoothly between sand-banks. Occasionally it visits jheels and tanks, but only where there is a clear expanse of water free from weeds. It is the most curious and highly specialized bird and its method of feeding is correlated to its peculiarly formed bill. Both mandibles are deep and greatly compressed, much as if two knife-blades had been set edge to edge; the upper mandible is con- siderably shorter than the lower which projects beyond it by nearly an inch. When feeding the bird skims along the surface of the water with the beak wide open, the lower mandible inserted into the water and the upper quite clear of it. As soon as a small fish strikes the razor edge and runs up the incline the jaws close swiftly upon it. A party of Skimmers flying steadily backwards and forwards along the surface of the water appear "literally to plough the main" with the lower mandible of their bills. Though the flight is slow and leisuerly when feeding, they can go at immense speed when frightened. Their note is a shrill chattering scream (S. Baker). Only one species of Skimmer is found in India, Other species, known in America, have names like 'Cut-Water'. 'Razor- bill' and 'Scissorbill'. It is known as (water-cleaver' or 'cut-water') 'water', and in Hindi. It is a faithful rendering of Sanskrit were (fr. w , a cobbler's awl or a probe, and ar to insert, to place in; Cf. “शरारिका रन्धकारिणी" -कल्पद्रुकोश). Existing lexical synonymies notwithstanding, शरारी and भाटी (v.1. आदि, afe, art) are two different birds possessing two different types of bills after which two surgical instruments named were and are were de- signed by मुश्रुत as mentioned in the सुश्रुतसंहिता The शरारीमुख instrument is recommended as a blood-letting lancet³ and as a pair of scissors. It is, therefore, a dual purpose instrument and commentator accepts 1. Whistler & Ency. Brit, 11th and 14 editions. 2. 1.8.3. 3. Paragraph 4, ibid. 4. Para. 7, Ibid, 352 Birds in Sanskrit Literature this and calls it by the alternative name of or scissors. Conscious of the fact that were and art were different, he was, however, misled by the incorrect synonymies of अमर and हलायुध, and equated आटी with जलवर्धनी and postulated two varieties of war characterised with long bills, one having a white shoulder and the other a red head, the first of which he called . the शरारी proper :- शरारीमुखमिति, शरारिर्दीर्घचञ्चुः पक्षिविशेषः स द्विविधः – धवलस्कन्धो रक्तशीर्षश्च, धवलस्कन्धस्य शरारीति संज्ञा तन्मुखवन्मुखमस्य तच्छरारी- मुखं तस्य शस्त्रस्य लोके कर्तरीति संज्ञा । As already stated, there is only one variety of the Skimmer in India and the red-headed bird mentioned by him is no other than the art or the Black Ibis with a red papillated head (Ast. 80). His equation "arrêt refera aferfer" also confuses between the Ibis and the Skimmer, for the name it (i to cut', and at 'a broom') means (i) 'water-cutter' and (i) 'water-sweeper' or 'water-broom', i.e. a bird that cuts the water or sweeps over it. Both these senses are perfectly applicable to the Skimmer but none of them to the Ibis. The epithet may be said to be true of the Skimmer with reference to the broad white collar it has, but if it refers to the white shoulder patch of the Black Ibis, it would be difficult to maintain a distinction between the two birds intended by the commen- tator as both the epithets धवलस्कन्ध and रक्तशीषं would then signify the Black Ibis alone. The editors of the Nirnayasagara Press editions of g have failed to understand the dual nature of the were instrument as explained by ढल्हणाचार्य and also by the statement "दशाङ्गुला शरारीमुखी या सा कर्तरीति कथ्यते । in the text itself and, falling back upon , they argue that were, as a lancet and pair of scissors, must be two different instruments, for one and the same instrument cannot perform both the operations : (सुश्रुत) वाक्येन शरारीमुखस्य वित्रावणमेव कर्मोक्तं, कर्तर्यास्तु कर्म छेदनमेव, तस्मादेतच्छस्त्रद्वयं पृथगेव भवितुमर्हति । Hārānchandra's identification of शरारि with सरल (i.e. शरालि or Whistling Teal-Art 84c) is also quoted in this footnote and as the Duck's bill is flat and broad a rider is added that a refers only to the length of the Duck's bill and not to its breadth ! Nothing could be more absurd, particularly when it remembered that a prescribes a length of 12 fingers or approximately 7 inches and the Duck's bill is less than even 2.5. inches. The fact is that the identity of the two birds, art and art and the exact 1. 1.8.7. The Persian name for the bird is also derived from a word (maqass) mean- ing scissors. 2. Foot-note to 1.8.8 (1938 ed). Skimmer or Scissorbill 353 nature of their bills have been completely missed and for this not the commentators but the later lexicographers, who were each more of a grammarian than a field-naturalist, are responsible. The confusion dates back at least to the time offee, and his false synonymy on the identity of the names of several birds has been copied in the later lexicons includ- ing M. Williams. We have thus the following lexical equations :- (i) शरारिराठिराडिव – अमर (ii) आटिः शरारिरातिः स्यात्-हलायुध and हेमचन्द्र (अभि. चि.) (iii) आतिस्त्वाटि: शराटिका वैजयन्ती (iv) शरारिरारिराटिन शरार्यायतिरित्यपि शरालिध शराली च कल्पद्रुकोश (v) आतिः - शरातिपक्षी – उणादिसूत्रवृत्ति of उज्वलदत्त. (vi) आतिः - जलोपरिसंचारिणि खगे- (vii) आटि: शरारिराडिव विचिता जलचारिणी-मदनपालनिघण्टु It would be seen that while अमर, हलायुध and हेमचन्द्र have confused शरारि or anfar with anfe or anfir, 4ft goes further and includes rafe in the same. equation. w goes still further and brings in fer as well. It may perhaps help if, before proceeding with the identification of were the above. names are allocated to their respective owners : +1.62. (i) शरारि, आरि, आति, शराति – the Skimmer (ii) आटि, आटी, आडि, आडी —the Black Ibis (Art. 80 ) (iii) शराटिकां (v.I. शराटी) -the White Ibis (Art. 80 ) (iv) शरालि, शराली -the Whistling Teal ( Art. 84C) The other synonymies for wafe found in riff and have proved of considerable help in identifying it as one of the names of the Skimmer. They are a and fe. Wilson's Dictionary also equates fer with wafe. Now a means 'fixed', 'constant' and in music 'the introductory verse of a song recurring as a kind of burthen'. ध वका (घु वतीति छ वका, आवपनविशेषः – गणरत्नमहोदधि * ) is a particular mode of ploughing the land where a plough or a team of ploughs proceeds straight in a direction to the end of the field and works back to the starting base-line, and so on. fg is fr. f हावकृती, भावकरणे and means 'to sport' and हिल्लोल, cognate with हिन्दोल, refers to a 'to and fro motion' (हिल्लोलयति, दोल्यति). If these senses of the words घ व and feet are checked up with the habits of the Skimmer as described by Whistler, no doubt is left as to the identity of a, fer, and were. The bird is constantly on the move going back and forth over a fixed beat, and 354 Birds in Sanskrit Literature the names आति (अत् सातत्यगमने) and शराति (शरे जलोपरि अतति) also refer to this trait of the bird; cf. fafar af in synonymy (vii) above. The statement "नयां आति: नद्याति:" in पतञ्जलि महाभाष्य also brings out the close association of the आति with a river. It flies very low over the surface of the water-hardly a couple of inches above it for. it must cut the surface with the lower mandible all the time and, therefore, appears to cut or sweep the surface of the water as it were and this has given it the name of t (if, 'a cutter' or 'broom'). The name anfe in is merely short for wrafe and supports the derivation of the latter suggested above. The open position of the two blades of the bill and their closing upon a tiny fish clearly resembles the action of a pair of scissors and this, evidently suggested the w as a dual purpose surgical instrument. The lower mandible of the Skimmer projects considerably beyond the upper and resembles a knife-blade with a vertically flat and rounded point so that if a pair of scissors resembling this bird's bill is made it will act as a scissors up to the tip of the upper blade while the projecting flat tip of the lower blade, if sharpened, will serve as a blood-letting lancet. One can only admire the power of acute observa- tion and originality of the Sage in designing his instruments, art and rafe for the Ibises, and wafer for the Whistling Teal Duck will be found discussed in the articles noted against them above, but a word or two in explanation of how the different names came to be confused, one with the other, would not be out of place here. It appears that the earliest lexicons, now lost, gave the names separately for 'a kind of bird' but later when the identity of the birds themselves was forgotten, lexicographers who, working within the four walls of their study were concerned more with con- siderations of Grammar and brevity than anything else, treated the names as examples of substitution (according to "रलयोरैक्यम्", "डलयोरभेदः”, etc., and the changes of a---c.g. in words like - पटिमा, पतङ्गपटंग, घट-घड, चटक–चडग etc.) and therefore held them to be identical, that, in short, all of them were variae lectiones () of one or two original names. At the same time it is difficult not to blame them for overlooking the distinction between शरारी and भाटी so evident in सुश्रुत In Vedic literature the Skimmer occurs under the name of arfa in RV², and in the .fign. In the former and her companion-maids are discovered sporting at a lake by ge who goes in search of her. She asks him to return home, adding, that fast like the wind as she is, it would be 1. 6.1.127. 2. 10.95.9. 3. 24.34. Skimmer or Scissorbill 355 difficult for him to capture her. The also mentions the story and describes the birds as frisking, skipping or flying over the water :- ता अप्सरस आतयो भूत्वा परिपुप्लुविरे । We have already seen how parties of the Skimmers fly up and down. their beat over a given stretch of water (river or lake) and how when alarmed they are capable of immense speed. The behaviour of it and her friends in the form of anfe birds is therefore perfectly in keeping with the ways of the Skimmer. The dedication of anfa with a (a particular type of Python, a snake being ara in Sanskrit), and after (the Spoonbill, Art.79) to the Wind-god is quite in keeping with what it as an afer says of herself- दुरापना वात इवाहमस्मि । and no further comment is called for. It is submitted that to render anfa as g is incorrect. In secular literature also the Skimmer has been mentioned, once in the Rāmāyaṇa:³ ददृशुः सहिता रम्यं तडागं योजनायतम् । शरारिहंसकुररैराकीर्ण जलचारिभिः ॥ and again in the ऋतुसंहार 4. 6: प्रफुल्लनीलोत्पलशोभितानि शरारि ( शरालि ) कादम्बविभूषितानि । प्रसन्नतोयानि सुशीतलानि (सशैवलानि), सरांसि चेतांसि हरन्ति पुंसाम् ॥ Here if it is remembered that the Skimmer is associated with perfectly clean sheets of water and the Whistling Teal prefers weedy waters, the alternative reading of refer necessitates the reading 'af' while wafe goes well with w and f (clear and cool) waters. Like the Vultures, the most unlikely entry of a Skimmer (it) into a residential house is considered an ill omen : कवर्धनी चैव निपतन्ति गृहे यदि - भविष्यपुराण, 2.20.17. An appreciative reference to the charm that the anfa bird adds to a lake should be a fitting close to this article: The Ducks are at home in the lotus-bed at one end; White Ibises (*) fishing along the edges; a pair of 1 "दुरापना बात इवाहमस्मि" 95.2. 2. 11.5.1. 3. III.15.6 (Cal.Ein.), quoted under जलचारी in शब्दकल्पद्रुम 356 Birds in Sanskrit Literature. the Ruddy Goose resting on the water elsewhere; beautiful young ladies singing in the shade on the bank, and the Skinimer sporting over the clear waters complete the picture :- हंसैलब्धप्रशंसैस्तरलितकमलस्रस्तरङ्गस्तरङ्गः । नीरैरन्तर्गभीरैश्चपलबककुलत्तासलीनैश्च मीनैः ।। •पालीरुङद्रुमालीतलसुखणयितस्त्रीप्रणीतैश्च गीतैः । भाति प्रक्रीडदातिस्तवसलिलचलच्चक्रवाकस्तडागः ॥ सुभाषित, p. 220, 19 71 PLOVERS 1. Plovers are round-headed and short-billed birds of open meadows and sandy ground, not resorting to cover. They range in size from a small Quail to a Dove, have rather long legs and walk and run freely on the ground. They have no hind toe or only a rudimentary one and are, therefore, unable to perch on trees. A majority of them undergo seasonal changes. of colour-pattern and, being winter-visitors to the country, their identi- fication from distance is a matter of some difficulty, and yet quite a number of them have Sanskrit names based on some physical character- istics and the nature of their call-notes. 2. The Little Ringed Plover (6.5"), the smallest member of the group, is सर्षपी (fr. सर्षप mustard, indicative of its small size and rolling or tripping movement on the ground) and खञ्जनिका (खञ्जन इव आचरति शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि, or a little Wagtail') from the black band below the white collar and the habit of running nimbly in short spurts along sand-banks and edge of the water. Its smart, neat and trim appearance has won for other pretty names like fe and fathe Little Princess'. Its larger allies, e.g. the long-billed Ringed Plover of Nepal must naturally share the above names with it. The synonyms in far and great for these birds and the Pratincoles have been considered in Art. 65. 3. The Red-wattled Lapwing (13") with its well-known call of 'ti-tee- tee-it' or 'did he do it' is the most familiar of resident Indian Plovers while the allied form, the Yellow-wattled Lapwing (10.5") is less common. The Spur-winged Plover, (12") also has a 'did-he-do-it' call. These are undoubtedly the fefe of art and other lexicons. af however is a different bird according to ,, etc., but it has been equated with feefew and other birds by others. An attempt must, therefore, be made to clear the confusion if possible.

• Because of this black band the Ringed Plover indirectly shares the epithet of

with the , a White Wagtail, and as it is smaller than a Wgtail it has been called खजना or खञ्जनिका-खज्जनः बज्जरीटे, स्त्री सर्वप्यां, खज्जनं गतौ मेदिनी. The gram- matical ferninine often indicates the small size of an object-- स्त्री स्यात् काचिन्मृणाल्यादि- विवक्षापचये यदि अमर 3.5.7. 358 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 4. Some of the relevant dictionary meanings, lexical synonymies and a couple of other references given below would perhaps be found useful:- (1) af-'A kind of water-fowl' and the Lapwing in M. W., and ‘जलकुक्कुट' in शब्दकल्पद्रुम and शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि. (2) f-'having legs like sticks', the Lapwing (or a small white Crane, commonly called Paddy-bird) in M. W. (3) firar Parra jacana or goensis-M. W. (the Red-wattled Lapw- ing) (4) feefew and feefewe-Parra jacana-M. W. (5) कोशिकी–कोयष्टि (6) कोयष्टि शिखरी समी-हेमचन्द्र, वैजयन्ती (7) कोयष्टि शिखरी जलकुक्कुभ:-अभिधानचिन्तामणि (8) कोयष्टि: जलकुक्कुभ:-विकाण्डशेष (9) कोयष्टि टिटिभः- धन्वन्तरि (10) कोयष्टिष्टिटिभष्टिटि:-कल्पद्रु (11) कोयष्टि or कोयष्टिक and टिटिभ are different birds in (i) मनुस्मृति, 5.11 & 13; (ii) मत्स्यपुराण 118.50-51; (iii) अमरकोश; and (iv) याज्ञ वल्क्य, 1.173, where कोयष्टि has been loosely rendered as फीच, i.e., Egret or Heron in the मिताक्षरा टीका (cf. the expression कौनिभा for 'birds resembling a Crane' in वसन्तराज, 4.48). 5. A consideration of the above material shows that originally the terms कोयष्टिक and टिटिभ, corresponding to कोयष्टि and कुष्टिका of चरक, applied to different birds and it was through the already existing after as a synonym for fecfew that the name af also came very early to be identified with the red and yellow-wattled Lapwings. The terms af, कुष्टिका (diminutive from masc. कुपष्टिक), कोयष्टि and कोयष्टिक seem to form a sort of homonymous series based upon two different senses of afe for (i) a stick or support, with reference to the longish legs or horn-like crest of a bird, and (ii) hair or anything thin or slender, referring to the thin and longish crest-feathers possessed by others. Similarly the prefixes and suffixes , and would seem to have been understood in several senses, e.g., (i) कुत्सितार्थे, अल्पायें, (ii) a variant of कं–जलम्; (iii) कं–शिरः; (iv) कं–केशः and (v). Thus af as a homonym should be (i) the Water-cock (शिखरी or जलकुक्कुभ) with a horn or stick like appendage on the head and (ii) the Black-winged Stilt, a bird of the Lap-wing family, characterised. by very long legs and called me (the long-legged) in the vernacular. after would then be (i) the Lapwings with shorter legs in comparison to the Stilt and (ii) the Green Plover or the Peewit with its long, thin, pointed and recurved crest कोयष्टि of भरक, मनु, etc. and कोयष्टिक (प्रकारार्थे कन्) of अमर, सुश्रुत, and भवभूति are the smaller crested Herons and Bitterns which 1. M. Williams gives ककुयष्टिका by separating "चिरिटोककुयप्टिका" of नरक in correctly. Plovers 359 keep standing in shallow water for hours waiting for prey to come to them. This trait of theirs and the possession of thin crests may be explained with reference to the derivation of the name given in the materit te on अमर and elsewhere, "कं जलं यष्टिरिवास्य" to which I would add another "के मूर्ध्नि affare". If the word afe in the latter derivation is taken for 'a.stick' it would be true of the Water-cock as well. See Art. 58 for Water-cock and Art. 82 for Herons. 6. The equation "tufe: fart at" is, therefore, equally true of the Green Plover and the Water-Cock. This is evident from the fact that it has been extended to include in Nos. (7) & (8) above. The name firert means 'pointed', 'crested' and 'erection of the hair on the body'. कोयष्टि or कोयष्टिक again, as a bird with powerful call-notes either a feefew, the Red or Yellow-Wattled Lapwing, or the Water-Cock according as the bird is placed in a drier or wet zone or with water birds. On the other hand af, or more correctly af, as a water-side or tree-perch- ing bird is any (one or more) variety of the smaller crested Herons or Bitterns. Unlike the piercing and persistent notes of the Lapwings the voice of these birds is a mere croak, uttered at intervals. 7. Names like कोयष्टि and कोयष्ट्रिभकs are clearly formed on the analogy of feefew and feefew and point to the adaptation and appropriation of the term fez (small crested Heron) for the commoner Lapwings and they too like कुष्टिका, mark another stage in the assimilation of the name कोयष्टि, with feefen for the Lapwings. It must, however, be noted that the poets have used all the variants of fe indiscriminately for the Lapwings or small Herons according to the needs of the metre in hand. Thus even the form कोयष्टिभक has been used for the smaller Bitterns in रामायण ( Art. 82). In the following examples the birds meant by कोयष्टि, कोयष्टिभक, and कोयष्टिक are the Lapwings:- कोयष्टिभिश्चार्जुनकैः शतपत्तैश्च कीचकैः । एतान्यैश्च बहुभिर्नादितं तद्वनं महत् ॥ प्रहृष्टकोयष्टिभकोकिलस्वनं- विनोदयन्तं च सुखं परं शिवम् || उद्दामयुमणियुतिव्यतिकरप्रक्रीडदोपल- ज्वालाजालजटालजाङ्गलतटीनिष्कूजकोयष्टयः ॥ रामायण 3.75.12 Ibid., 2.54.43 अनर्धराघव 2.30 1. कोयष्टि has been rendered as कौन्च, ic, a Heron like bird or alternatively as बक in the same sense in याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृति, 1.173. 2. Rāmāyaṇa 2.54.43. 3. Ibid. 5.1.44, and Allahabad Ed., 6.38.9. 360 दात्यूहकोयष्टिकाद्यः क्वचिच्चातिमनोहरैः । पुंस्कोकिलकलालापैः श्रुतिहारिभिरन्वितम् ।। हंसकारण्डवाकीर्ण चक्राह्वः सारसैरपि । जलकुक्कुटकोयष्टिदात्यूहकुलकूजितम् ॥ Birds in Sanskrit Literature मार्कण्डेय पुराण, 58.24. भागवत, 8.2.15. 8. The Red-wattled Lapwing being one of the commonest birds of India has earned for itself several other names and finds a place in literature under the name of feefew. It is a very demonstrative bird, is greatly agitated and becomes noisy whenever a human being appears anywhere near its nest. Its anxiety for its eggs or young accounts for names like अण्डीरक (अण्ड + ईर् कम्पने ? ) of the बृहत्संहिता and अण्डक (की शब्दे ?) of वैजयन्ती. The epithet उत्पादशयन indicates its habit of resting or sleeping while standing on one or both legs, but the story-teller forgetting the original sense of the expression has founded a wonderful conceit upon it. The bird is said to sleep on its back with legs stretched straight up with the deliberate idea of protecting itself should the heavens fall down upon it! उत्क्षिप्य टिट्टिभः पादावास्ते भङ्गभयाद्दिवः । * पञ्चतन्त्र, समुद्रटिट्टिभकथा A king is advised simply to ignore the unworthy pressing his request repeatedly like the Lapwing :- टिट्टिभं तमनुपेक्षेत वाशमानमिवातुरम् महाभारत, 12.114.4. Both this and the Yellow-wattled Lapwing, as also the Spur-winged Plover are from their harsh cries and the first two are far from their yellow legs and सदालूता (लूता चर्मवणे -- a scar- धन्वन्तरिनिघण्टु) from their permanent scar-like wattles: टिट्टिभी पीतपादश्च सदालूता नृजागर: राजनिघण्टु 9. The कटुक of मत्स्यपुराण, 'कटुकान्टिट्टिभान्भटान्' would also seem to refer to a particular Lapwing as the name is analogous to. The Sociable

• Similarly, the poets, commentators and lexicographers have misunderstood the

name a, a Giraffe, and interpreted it as a fabulous monster with eight legs, the normal four and a second set growing upwards from the back. See जैन आदिपुराण of जिनसेन 27,70 and 31, 25 where the per taking a somersault into the air is described as landing safely on his second set of legs. The body of the Giraffe is marked with a chequered pattern resem- bling a chess-board (arere), and hence the name. Lexical epithets like (standing high on legs), महास्कन्ध (high-shouldered), उष्ट्राकृति, and ऊर्ध्वनयन (looking high up) also belong to him. It is incorrect to describe as a fabulous animal though as described in the above work it is certainly unreal. 361 Plovers Lapwing has a mewing wail of a single loud and harsh note and occurs as a 'not uncommon' winter visitor in North India. The name , there- fore, most probably refers to it. 10. The war bird (?), has been dedicated to the sun in his friendly aspect along with two others, the Bee-eater and the Paradise Flycatcher (Arts. 40 & 11): शार्गः सृजयः शयाण्डकस्ते मंत्राः । वाज संहिता, 24.33 As the first two are insect-eating birds it is probable that was too has similar habits. The name perhaps bears some analogy to af and ang for the Red-Wattled Lapwing, and may possibly be derived, a++, i.e., a bird that lays its eggs on the ground and cries (w) anxiously for them when in danger. If so, it should be the same as feefew. All the three birds are beneficial to the crops in the field, orchard or grove. Moreover their striking colour-patterns are best set off during flight in the sun. The mild sun of the winter-months is indeed a friend to man as are these birds: विवस्वान् श्रावणे मासि प्रौष्ठपयां भगः स्मृतः । . मार्गशीर्षे भवेन्मितः पौषे विष्णुः सनातनः । कूर्मपुराण, 43.21-22. 11. The most prominent feature of the Avocet is its long, flexible and upcurved bill with which it probes into the mud for worms and insects. The upturned bill reminds one of a digging tool or a ploughshare. Its Hindi name f g (a Snipe with a bill like a ploughshare; कुशिक, 3 ploughshare) is the same as कशिकानी, a water-bird in चरक, and कशीका, काशीका, and कृषिका ("कपिका पक्षिजाति:"-टणादि 4.16; "खनित्रे कशी"-गणरत्नमहोदधि 51; कषीका कुद्दालः and a thong which is of course flexible). a, again, (from to draw out or extract) occurring in fer.efgar, 5. 5. 13 appears to be the same as कषिका Prakrit हलीमुख also is the Avocet. यष्टिक as a probable name for the Black-winged stilt has already been mentioned. Another vernacular name for it is eterit (red-legged) which helps to identify (red- legged), a water-bird in, as this bird.

• More probably, it is the same as

, the Spiny-tailed Lizard known. as it in Hindi. It is found in open sandy places. Like the garden lizard, afgi, it loves the sun. In fact, like other reptiles, the lizards dislike cold and are active in bright sunny weather. Birds in Sanskrit Literature 12. The beautiful, though curious-looking, Ibis-bill has been rather. doubtfully placed with the Plovers in The Fauna (Birds) of India. It has a long, curved and red bill, red legs and feet, and wears a double band of white and black as a gorget or necklace separating the blue neck from the white under-parts. It is a bird of the banks and beds of the Himalayan streams, ranging in summer between 8,000 and 15,000 feet and in winter between the edge of the plains and 10,000 feet. 13. The a recommend the flesh of the bird (-+¶ ÑÒ, having a beautiful or ornamented neck) at the ceremony of a male child if his father wishes that he should be long-lived. The commentator gives कङ्कणहारिका as a synonym for कृकया. Now कङ्कण means प्रतिसर, माल्पः, a garland in शब्दकल्पद्रुम and "मण्डलं यागाद्यर्थं नानावर्णो रेखासप्रिदेश:" in महकोषटीकासार, The bi-coloured gorget of the Ibis-bill is certainly a both in the sense of a garland and a multi-coloured set of lines, and it is therefore more than probable that the above synonymous names belong to the Ibis-bill. It is known as (fr. g a halter or neck-rope) in Nepal. It will also be seen that the bill of this pretty bird resembles that of the aret (Black Ibis) the flesh of which is said to ensure holy lustre to the growing boy, and like the latter the auspicious red colour is very pro- minent in the Ibis-bill. The bird's habitat would seem to protect it against persecution by man and so to ensure it a full normal life. Consi- derations like these would account for the selection of the bird in the above context. 362 14. Finally the भूलिङ्गशकुनि* of the महाभारत (2.41.19-21) cannot be omitted even though it is not one of the present-day Indian birds and therefore not included in The Fauna (Birds) of India. The relevent verses describing the curious behaviour of the bird are reproduced here:-- भूलिङगशकुनिर्नाम पायें हिमवतः परे । भीष्म ! तस्याः सदा वाचः श्रूयन्तेऽर्थविगहिताः ॥ मा साहसमितीदं सा सततं वाशते किल । साहसं चात्मनातीव चरन्ती नाऽवबुध्यते ॥ सा हि मांसागलं भीष्म ! मुखात् सिंहस्य खादतः । दन्तान्तरविलग्नं यत्तदादत्तेऽल्पचेतना || The word for in the above passage stands for g, a Crocodile (Cf. synonymous expressions like पुरुषसिंह and पुरुषव्याघ्र), and भूलिङ्गशकुनि is the African Plover, Pluvianus aegyptius, commonly known as the Crocodile Bird, so called from its frequent association with the Nile Crocodile from

• भूवि लिङ्गतीति भूलिङ्गो बिलशायी पक्षिविशेष:- नीलकण्ठ on the above verse.

The bird is named मासाहस शकुनि by हेमचन्द्र in परिशिष्ट पर्वन् 3.141. The author, however, did not know that the bird was a kind of plover, for in the story related by him he makes the bird perch upon a tree which the Plovers never do. He has also modified the version in the M.Bh. 363 Plovers the body of which it picks up parasites and as the monster is sunning him- self on the bank with the mouth agape, the bird boldly enters it to draw. out the leeches sticking to his jaws. It renders another service as well to him, in that being a very wary bird, it flies off with warning cries at the approach of danger and the crocodile taking the warning slips into the water. Another Plover popularly known as the Zick-zack (Hoplopterus spinosus) is also said to have similar habits. It will be readily seen that the leeches are the # and the warning cry of the birds is the age cry of the story. It is probable that in former times one of these birds fre- quented the Sind coast or the estuary of the Sind river where Crocodiles occur, or else the ancient Indians heard of the bird's habits from the sea- faring merchants of ancient India. The Plover lays its eggs in a hole in the sand and hence the name भूलिङ्गशकुनि. The habitat mentioned as “पार्श्वे fa: " would seem to refer to the country beyond the south-western out-spurs of the Himalayas, viz., the Suleiman Range, considered as a wing or extension of the Himalayas. Evidently the territories to the North- west of the Indian Ocean are meant. 72 CURLEW, GODWIT, SANDPIPER, RUFF & REEVE, WOOD- COCK, & SNIPE 1. This family comprises the longer-billed waders some of which are as large as a common fowl, others as big as a dove and yet others no bigger than a sparrow, the majority, however possessing long legs. 2. The Curlew is a sandy-brown bird as big as a common fowl, or to quote from the Britannica: "In bulk the Curlew is not less than a crow, but it looks larger still from its long legs, wings and neck" (11th Edn.). 3. It is a winter visitor to India, arriving in September and leaving by the middle of May. In winter it is found inland in small numbers-singly, pairs or small parties-about jheels, marshland, and rivers, but it is rather more plentiful along our seacoasts (Salim Ali). It is active during both day and night but its call is mostly heard at night. "The commo- nest notes are a loud musical quoi quoi and crooee, crooce, crooee,... with the second syllable higher-pitched and more emphatic than the first and often uttered in long sequences. The song begins with a succession low long drawn-out liquid notes, the first three or four delivered in a rather slow measured manner, Oorrr-oorrr-oorrr..., then gaining speed and passing into a louder and higher-pitched bubbling trill impossible to render in words, finally sinking again and often ending with some low notes like the opening ones" (Smythies). S. Baker describes the notes of the Curlew as a haunting cry of 'curlew cur-lew' heard far overhead at night and a loud screaming note when frightened or disturbed. It is quite possible that the Curlew in India does not give us its full repertoir but a shorter version of it. The relevance of the above detailed description of the bird's "plaintive voice" fully manifests itself when we come to references to F (masc. , the Curlew) in Sanskrit literature. The name ge ( is probably a copying error) in the single-names-list of g is perhaps different from the feminine of of the equation":" in the same lexicon and most probably refers to this bird. In other lexicons, however, the synonymy is comprehensive enough. The following simile based on the plaintive notes of the Curlew gives us a very vivid picture of the sorrowful wail of a young lady in distress: तां कन्दमानामत्यर्थं कुररीमिव वाशतीम् । करुणं बहुशोचन्तीं विलपन्तीं मुहुर्मुहुः ॥ महाभारत, 3.63.20 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Ruff & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe माधव, the hero of the drama मानतीमाधव by भवभूति compares the soft and high pitched piteous cries of his beloved sacrificed to the goddess as she is on the point of being with the 'most mournful wail' of the bird: नादस्तावद्विकलकुररीकूजितस्निग्धतारः । चित्ताकर्षी परिचित इव धोवसंवादमेति ॥ Act V. 20 One of a group of love-lorn maidens () of Gokul, when they find it impossible to go to sleep at night for thinking of their beloved Krsna, questions a solitary Curlew calling in the air in the following words: कुररि ! विलपसि त्वं बीतनिद्रा न शेषे, स्वपिति जगति राज्यामीश्वरो गुप्तबोधः । वयमिव सखि ! कच्चिद्गाढनिर्भिन्न चेता, नलिननयनहासोदारलीलेक्षितेन ॥ भागवत, 10.90.15. It will be noticed that both the above examples relate to occurrences late in the evening or at night when the Curlew is often heard high up. 365 4. When Rama returns to his hermitage after killing Marica he expresses his fears to his brother that Sità has probably been carried away by blood-thirsty Raksasas and how she must have wailed like a g: "T विनादं कुररीव दीना, सा मुक्तवत्यायतकांतनेवा"- रामायण, 3.63, 11. Similarly the wail of Sità, when she was abandoned by Lakṣmaṇa at the bidding of Rama near the hermitage of sage Valmiki, has been compared by Kalidasa to the plaintive cries of the कुररी : सा मुक्तकण्ठं व्यसनातिभारात् चकन्द विग्ना कुररीव भूयः । ततोऽनिरुद्धस्य गृहे रुरुदुः सर्वयोषितः । प्रियं नाथमपश्यन्तः कुरयं इव सङ्घशः ॥ Raghu, 14.68. The following verses refer to the great sorrow of the ladies and maids at the palace of prince area who had been suddenly abducted away at night, and the poct wishing to present an impressive picture of the pathetic scene has campared their wail to the plaintive cries of hundreds of Curlews:- हरिवंश, 2.121, 1. तासां हम्पंतलस्थानां पूर्ण आसीन्महास्वनः । कुररीणामिवाकाशे रुदतीनां सहस्रशः ॥ Ib, 2.121, 12, 366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 5. The Whimbrel is a smaller edition of the Curlew but it has quite a different voice-"titti-titti-titti-titti-titti-tit in very even time and with even emphasis throughout" (Smythies). This bird is also known as 'titterel' from its voice in England, and it would seem that Sanskrit fefez is for it though the name has been confused and treated as synonymous with fefew. The name, however, occurs with single names of several other birds in the कल्पद्रुकोण- "कोयष्टि: टिटिभ टिष्टि कुररो (? कुररी) जलकुक्कुटी". Everyone of these names stands for a different bird just as single names of thirteen different birds are given in अमरकोश"तेषां विशेषा हारीतो मैद्गु...". हलायुध also gives a similar list. It is the proximity of safe and fezfew in passages like these that has led to their being wrongly treated as fully synonymous and some commentators have incorrectly explained both कुररी and कोयष्टि as टिट्टिभ. 6. The Black-tailed Godwit (16 inches) is a migratory bird, visiting Northern India in flocks of ten to over a hundred from October to March. It has a particularly long and straight awl-like bill, 3 to 5 long with which it probes into the mud for worms, insects etc. It is evidently the very expressive TRT or argent (and ift-having an awl-like beak) of the e, corresponding to its Hindi name in Nepal, from, 'Mud' and , 'a bamboo-pin'. It is also known as a (large Snipe) in Hindi (per Jerdon) and ,, to break or pierce-H. ut to dig and whence that pierces (the ground). also in Hindi from Sansk. to prick or pierce, 7. Snipes are चाहा (चढ़ विस्मापने ? ) in Hindi from their habit of springing suddenly out of cover in marsh-land and their confusing zig-zag flight. In Bengal they are known as कादा खोंचा (कर्दम, mud and कुच, विलेखने, to scratch), the same as Sanskrit g (g, mud and, to scatter or disturb). The resem- blance of the colour of their plumage to that of the Quails accounts for their name T (Water-Quail) in Marathi and in Sanskrit. The Eastern Fantail Snipe breeds in Kashmir and the Himalayas, and the behaviour of this bird during the breeding season was certainly observed by the ancients who named it गोभण्डीर (गवि आकाशे भण्डते or गवि आकाशे भण्डीर इव भण्डीर, the for tree, Accacia sirissa, so called because its numerous dry secd-pods vibrate and produce a rattling sound when shaken by the brecze). The Fantail, when flushed from its nest, soon mounts aloft and executes series of aerial evolutions of an astounding kind after wildly circling about, and reaching a height at which it appears a mere speck it abruptly shoots. downwards and as abruptly regains its former elevation. This process is repeated many times. A few seconds after each of these headlong descents a mysterious drumming sound is heard-evidently produced by the rush of air through its tail feathers as the bird shoots downwards (adapted from Ency. Brit. 11th Edn.; see also Whistler and other authorities). The bird is silent on the ground and when alarmed rises with just a 'pench' call which cannot justify the alternative derivation– "गवि जले भण्डीरः अति वाचाल:"- 4. The term w implies a continuous sound (aferrare) and it is in Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Ruff & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367 recognition of such a sound that the शिरीष has been named भण्डीर or [मडखिनी- . The above description of the bird's flight and the consequent 'drumming' therefore fully bears out the beautiful name, r, given to it and the विकाण्डशेप equation-"गोभण्डोर: पङ्ककीरः" should be interpreted to mean that गोभण्डोर is a kind of पकीर or Snipe, for every पढ़कीर is not exactly a गोभण्डीर, Thus we have gre and far as common names for all Snipe, and e for the Fantail, indicative of its peculiar drumming habit. 8. The Woodcock is a medium-sized and long-billed Himalayan bird (14 inches) whose russet-coloured plumage somewhat resembles that of the Common Grey Partridge. It is also about the same size. It moves down from its breeding haunts in the Himalayas from 8000 to 12,000 feet to the plains in winter. It is known in Nepal as सिमकुकरा or सिमतीतर, names which directly derive from सिम-or हिम-कुक्कुट; or सिम or हिम-तित्तिर in Sans- krit ("तुषार: शिशिरः स्फीत: सेभ्यः सीमो हिमोऽपि च" - for 'snow'–वैजयन्ती) and it must have been so named though these terms are not to be found in the present day. lexicons. wegfafer (Pseudo- or imitation-Partridge) is mentioned in diere जातक (547) with कपिंजर and तित्तिर for the Grey and the Black Partridges in verses 2098-2099. As a Himalayan bird, therefore, weferfere is most proba- bly the same as Hindi fermare, and the name may well be from Sanks, w fafere (a mimic or false Partridge). We also means 'a jester' and the name most probably refers to: (i) the male Woodcock's habit of flying playfully backwards and forwards in an arc with alternate croaks and squeaks during the breeding season ; (ii) its curious and twisting flight in and out of trees at a pace that is very deceiving; and (iii) its 'acting' to entice one away from the nest and young by shamming injury and then flying clean out of sight after at while (S. Baker). If so, the name wg-or www-fafere for it is really a very picturesque one. 9. The Watercock bores holes in soft ground for worms, grubs, etc., and its presence is often inferred from the holes made by its three inch bill. It is, therefore, possible that it also shares the name of arget with the Godwit, particularly as both are sub-equal in size and fowlers often pass a Godwit for a Woodcock at the Calcutta market because the latter is considered a greater delicacy for the table than the former (F.B.I., first edition). 10. Sandpipers and Stints are comparatively speaking long-billed (less than one to two inches) waders of medium to small size which are rarely found away from water. They are more or less alike, the majority being grey-brown above and white below and with a good deal of white in or above the tail. Their constant connection with sandy ground near water and their piping call notes account for their common name of 368 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Sandpipers. From a distance they look like Snipe and are therefore known as 'Snippets' which gives the unsportsman-like Anglo-Indian an excuse to shoot them for the pot. Unlike Snipe, however, they are birds of the open, do not take to cover and have not the tricky and fast flight of the Snipe. They are thus easy to kill and are not regarded as 'sport- ing birds'. Excepting a few like the Common Sandpiper and the Redshank most of the members of this group are winter visitors only, and of these the Wood Sandpiper and the Little, Temminck's and the Curlew Stints are the commonest. The Redshanks are known as 4 or, the Greenshank as feufeur (after its piping call), and the Little Stint as tr (lit., 'water-greedy') in Hindi. The a would seem to be related to ve for a kind of bird in the मत्स्यपुराण, 118-"कटुकान् टिटिभान् भटान्" where the association of the name with those for the Lapwings, birds of the same family, is significant. The alternative name ( a self-proclaimed warrior') also points to we, 'a fighter'. That is because the birds often parry against one another on the ground or indulge in aerial mock-fight out of the breeding season but more seriously during that season. The grauifgar, now extant, mentions fr and fre in its list of waterbirds (chapter, 11) and the first name fr (fr) most probably refers to the larger Sandpipers because of their piping notes. We thus have two names for these birds, we and fag. The call of the Little and Curlew or Pigmy Stints is a 'wick-wick- wick' or the same as 'pick-pick-pick' which makes it highly probable that पिक is an onomatopoetic name for them. The Little Stint is पनलोहा (पनलोभा) in Hindi corresponding to जललोभिन्- जलरङ्क (जलायें रङ्क दीन: ) in Sanskrit. This last name has been thoughtlessly confused and equated with w, in the lexicons and commentaries.. The latter, as we have seen, is the Purple Moorhen (Art. 58). The Stints as a group are therefore and पिक, Birds like the Marsh Sandpiper and the Greenshank are known as गोवा in Bengali and if the name is from गोत्र:-गो जलमेव वाणमस्य, it would appear to be but a rendering of. If this is correct may well be a com- mon name for the Sandpipers and Stints together as birds whose mainstay is water. 11. The Ruff and Reeve arrive in India towards the end of August and leave, "the males often in nearly full dress", in April. As the birds breed in northern Europe and Asia, the fights of the males for the possession of the females probably do not take place in this country and they have been named in Hindi and Sanskrit after the extraordinary ruff grown by the male as an ornament during the breeding season. The ruff extends from the nape downwards and covers the entire breast. It is known in Hindi as (-neck, and hair or feathers); Gehwala noted against the bird in the F.B.I. is an obvious misprint just as Panloha (gr) for the Little Stint has become 'Pauloha'. There are also Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Ruff & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 369 several other errors of this type in the work. Hindi a corresponds to Sansk. or as and often change places in Prakrit, and these latter are known as epithets for the Great Crested Grebe because it wears a ruff of long feathers round its neck. This feature is possessed by the male Ruff as well, and in an exaggerated form, and it, therefore, shares the names and with the Grebe. 73 PELICANS Pelicans are huge, squat-looking birds of rivers and lakes living mainly on fish which they systematically hunt in parties in a semi-circular form- ation, driving the fish into the shallows and then gobbling them up. Their most characteristic external feature is the enormous elastic skin-bag which hangs below the large flattened bill, and this is large enough to contain a man's head. Besides fish they pick up and swallow young birds and even half-grown Ducks coming within their reach. The species that are found in India range from 5 to 6.5 feet in length and r over 10 feet in wing-expanse. No wonder such a bird is called fee in Hindi and also in Sanskrit. "Jalasind" in the F.B.I. is a printing error. The water- bird called केसरी in चरक, and पुण्डरीक in सुश्रुत (lion and tiger respectively ) is no other than the pelican; Cf. पक्षिसिंह for गरुड or the Golden Eagle. शाईल of the lexicons and we off, 6.2, are additional names for it. Lastly it is also प्लव in a special sense as defined in कल्पद्रुकोश : प्लवो महाप्रमाणः स्यात् प्रसेवकगज (गल ? ) श्र्व सः । But it would be more correct to call it was against for the cormorant and the coct. i also defines grs in a similar way, and the ff referring to its size, calls it a greft. As the different species of Pelican are difficult to distinguish in the field they are not differentiated Sanskrit nomenclature. Prakrit कासिह (- जलसिंह) and हय-पोंडरीय of प्रश्नव्याकरण and पोंडरीग (पुण्डरीक) of अभिधानराजेन्द्र, all refer to this bird. The following corrupt synonymy in धन्वन्तरि probably includes जलसिंह for it: जलपक्षी महापक्षी जलसाघ (संह) तिवासकः । If the second half of the above is read "aftsferrer" the expression afers may refer to the belief that fish are attracted to Pelicans by their oily secretion (Jerdon). The first half of the verse (not reproduced) is also corrupt but includes yet another Prakrit name for it, viz. (पाशगल), the same as प्रसेवकगल of कल्पद्रुकोश, 1. हय पोंडरीय equated with हृद पुण्डरीक- Lake-tiger in पा. स. म. is the same as कासिह of the same lexicon. 74 CORMORANTS & DARTER 1. Three species of Cormorants are found in India, viz., the Large Cormorant which measures about 32 inches in length, the Indian Shag (25 inches) and the Little Cormorant (20 inches), all of them of a generally black colour with a green gloss. They live entirely on fish which is caught by diving under water with the thin but hooked bill. When not feeding they perch on rocks, stakes in the water. with wings spread out in the sun for drying. They frequent both fresh and salt water, the latter near the sea-coast. or on trees. The Darter or Snake-bird is about three feet long including its long snaky neck. It is of a black colour but with white on the neck. It has a long, thin and sharp pointed bill with which it impales fish under water. It is a much better diver than the Cormorants. 2. The well-known naturalist "E HA" speaking of Cormorants and the Darter says, "The Cormorant is a thoroughly shabby bird, with large, ragged tail, and coloured all over a sordid black,...the Snake-bird so called from its serpentine head and neck...sitting on a low tree, with its wings held out to dry, looks like a big Cormorant with the neck of a Heron fitted on its shoulders; but at close quarters it is a very handsome the shoulders especially bird. Its plumage is peculiar, the feathers being long and narrow, like the hackles of a Cock. Each feather is black or dark brown, with silvery border, or spotted with a silvery white, and the effect is very beautiful." Because of its plumage it is also known as the silver-laced Snake Bird. 3. The Hindi names for the Cormorants are बड़ा or छोटा-जलकौक्षा (Skt. e) corresponding to the Large and the Little Cormorant, but there. is no separate name for the Shag which being larger than the Little Cormorant would pass as बड़ा पनकौआ In Sanskrit they are प्लब or जलकाक though the name rifer would seem to imply the Little Cormorant. 1. This is the reason why both , the cormorant, and w, the Darter, have been des- cribed as a kind of water-crow , in equations Nos. 1 and 3 reproduced in Para. 3. below. 2. The Common Birds of Bombay, 2nd Ed., pp. 186-187. 372 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Some of the lexical synonymies bearing on these birds and the Darter are noted below:- (i) प्लव: कारण्डवे जलकाके ( जलवायसे) विश्वप्रकाश हेमचन्द्र (ii) प्लवस्तु मात्रसम्प्लव:--अभिधानचिन्तामणि (iii) मद्गुस्तु जलकाकः ( जलवायसः ) –वैजयन्ती; हलायुध अभि. चिन्तामणि (iv) मत्स्यवेधन (v.l. मत्स्यवेधनी) मद्गुपक्षिणि वाचस्पत्यम् M. Williams (v) काकमद्गुः पानीयकाकिका– चक्रपाणिदत्त on चरक; रभसकोश quoted in नामचन्द्रिका ( टीका on अमर ) (vi) शितिकण्ठस्तु दात्यूहः काकमद्गुः कचाटुर:--विकाण्डशेष (vii) काकमद्गुः जलरङ्क:- हारावली in its The first shows that means both 'the Coot' (, Art. 58) and the Cormorant (1, 'the Water-Crow'). The second speaks of two meanings and states that both go down completely under water, i.e., are divers. M. Williams has rendered 'the Pelican', but this is not usually a diving bird and the error has, perhaps, arisen from the fact that also means a Pelican. Nos. (iii)and (iv) taken together show that is a bird that spears fish and is a kind of or Cormorant, i.e., the two have nearly similar habits, and they are indeed members of the same family. अमर mentions मद्गु, कारण्डव and प्लव as different birds and since 4 is the coot (Art. 58) and none of the Commentaries on are seen by me renders as the Pelican, we are left with for the Cormorant and for the Snake-bird. is also a water-snake and the fact that the name is shared by bird and reptile is significant. The Cormorant swims and also "dives with a jump into air" and has been very appropriately named (swimining, leaping). No. (iv) makes (Fish-impaler') and synonymous which appears to be perfectly correct as the principal difference between the fishing habits of a Cormorant and a Darter is that while the former always just catches a fish under water with its hooked bill, the latter, as a rule, transfixes it with a sudden rapier-like thrust of its thin and sharp pointed bill (aptly described as "spear of a beak"). This action is greatly helped by a peculiar arrangement of some of the vertebrae in its long neck, which act like a powerful spring and suddenly straighten out for each thrust at a fish (Whistler). 4. The aptness of the name way for the Darter is reinforced by the remarkable likeness borne by the long and flexible neck and small head of the bird, as it swims very low in the water, to a snake coming up to breathe. This has been well brought out by E HA and other observers. If follows, therefore, that we is the particular type of which is by habit a मत्स्यवेधन काकमद्गु ( काक इव मद्गु) occurs in चरक 1.25.38 and चक्रदत्त renders it as f (No. (v) above) which clearly refers to the Little Cormorant which is just as big as the Common Crow and is also by far Cormorants and Darter 373 the commonest of the Cormorants. The feminine gender of the name also implies the smallness of the bird, cf. "स्त्रीत्वेन वर्तकाद् वर्तिकाया लाघवं स्यात् " Equation No. (vi) refers to farfars (the black-necked) as two kinds of Ibis, viz., दात्यूह, the Black Ibis and कचादुर the White Ibis but काकमद्गु is certainly misplaced with them for none of them is a diver. The error due to the fact that all the three share the descriptive epithet of जलकाक (cf. "जलकाकस्तु दात्यूहः”–धन्वन्तरि ). The last synonymy from हारावली is wholly incorrect as belongs as a group-name to the Stint and Sandpiper type of birds which again do not dive for food or sport. 5. The names मद्गु and उपमद्गु borne by two of the sons of अक्रूर in हरिवंश (see alternative readings) are worth noting, for as the Snake-bird and as the Cormorant, preferably the Large one, which is about six inches shorter than the Snake-bird, are evidently the physical basis for them. Finally प्लवक or प्लबग are merely variae lectiones for प्लव 6. "जलं हृत्वाऽभिप्लव:"विष्णुस्मृति, 44.16 condemns a water-thief (probably a farmer misappropriating water from a canal belonging to another¹) to be reborn as the aquatic bird afभप्लव प्लव being the Cormorant अभिप्लव should mean a superior (af) bird of the same type and the Large Cormorant is certainly intended. During the breeding season the male of this species is readily distinguished from other members of the family by the white cheeks and a broad white patch on the flanks and it is this feature com- bined with its large size which has given him the name of af. This inference is fully borne out by the fact that a particular Vedic rite derives its name from this bird. The अभिप्लव षडह is defined as "उभयतो ज्योतिषोऽभिप्लवा भवन्ति, अन्यतो ज्योतिःपृष्ठभ:"-शत. ब्राह्मण, 12.2.2.1, and Eggling explains in a foot- note at p.149 of Vol. 44, S.B.E., that the af g has light (fr) on both sides of it because the feet is sung both at the beginning and at the close of the ceremony, i.e. on the first and the last days. This suffere is clearly, in reference to the snow-white patches on both sides of the face and body (or in front and rear of the body) of the af bird, the Large Cormorant of India. 7. A few examples from sacred and secular literature should prove interesting: मित्राय मद्गुन्–वाज संहिता, 24.22. प्लवो मद्गुर्मत्स्यस्ते नदीपतये - Ibid., 24.34. Here the comparatively beautiful Darter is named for the Sun-god because the bird seems to love the sun, as it were as it often perches with expanded wings in the sun for long periods. Similarly the Cormorant, 1. Per चक्रंदत्त on चरक, 1.27.47. 2. The equation farfers: re also refers to the white-breasted Waterhen, the शुक्लकण्ठ दात्यूह with शिति taken in the sense of 'white'. 1.34.12.; and 38. 52. 3 4. cf. परकीयं जलं हत्वा केदारार्थ द्विजो यदि स एव नरकं गत्वा मण्डूको जायते भुवि हेमाद्रि, चतुर्वमंचिन्तामणि, Vol. 4.277. 374 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Darter and fish are quite appropriate for the Lord of the Rivers as all three are permanently associated with the water. 8. The interpretation of as the clean weg bird by arep may not be correct but the view that a bird who spends much of his time in or upon the water shares the purity of that element seems to have been in favour with the ancients, for we find two spiritual preceptors named and and 'flying down' (f) to impart spiritual knowledge to young. The supposed association between cleanliness and spirituality is obvious in this picture and the position of honour given to the lowly Silverlaced Snake- bird is perhaps unique. The graceful Swan has of course been honoured in every country and particularly in India where the Sun and the Moon (“हंस: शुचिषत्)” and the liberated human soul have frequently been pictured as the Swan par excellence. 9. prohibits , the Cormorant, as food and decrees that water- thief would be reborn as that bird and thus condemned to an aquatic life. In the same way a person stealing animal-fat is destined to be a Darter (मद्गु). काकमद्गु in घृतं हृत्वा तु दुर्बुद्धिः काकमद्गुः प्रजायते । -महाभारत and ब्रह्मपुराण, 5 is again the Little Cormorant with the glistening oily plumage not affected by constant immersion in water. punishes theft of drinking water, the punishment this time consisting of a denial of all but a few drops of rain-water, for the thief must be reborn as a Hawk- Cuckoo (). Do these point to the Indo-Aryans having lived in areas stricken with drought or of the nature of a desert before they settled down in the happy land of the Five-rivers? Or did they suffer from a long period of water-scarcity in the Punjab itself? and 10. The reference to these birds in the are more interesting. T offers his love to eat in captivity and she insults him with a number of disparaging similes two of which are based upon a com- parison between the mean-looking Darter on the one hand and the princely Peacock and the graceful Goose on the other:- यदन्तरं वायसवैनतेययोः यदन्तरं मद्गुमयूरयोरपि । यदन्तरं सारसगृधयोर्वने तदन्तरं दाशरथेस्तवैव च ॥ -रामायण 1. On RV 1.124.4. 2. जावाल सत्यकाम-छान्दोग्य उपनिषद्, 4.7.1 and 4.8.1-2 3. 5.12. 4. 12.62. 5. 13.111.122 and 217.107 respectively. 6. 12.7. 7. 3.47.47. Cormorants and Darter क्रीडन्ती राजहंसेन पद्मखण्डेषु नित्यशः । हंसी सा तूणमध्यस्थं कथं द्रक्ष्येत मद्गुकम् ॥ -Ibid.¹ It need hardly be added that the Darter is most awkward on the land as compared with the beautiful and dignified gait of the Peacock on land and of the Goose both on land and on water. 11. The characteristic pose of the Darter as it perches on a stake in the water with wings spread out to dry finds poetical expression in : इयत्प्रमाणोऽपि सर: प्रदेशः तव प्रसादेन ममास्तु भोग्यः। इत्येष सन्दर्शयतीव मद्गु, हंसाय शोषाय विसारितांसः ॥ 375 -जानकीहरण 1. 3.56.20. 2. 3.30, Here the wooden stake would seem to demarcate the clear waters of a lake from the area covered with lotuses and lilies, and the bird extending his arms as it were, addresses the Goose sporting in the lotus-bed, "I may be permitted, Sir, to have the water on this side for my own use." The Darter fishes only in clear and weed-free waters. 75 GANNET OR BOOBY Gannets are large long-winged sea-birds with stout conical pointed bills, serrated along the commissure. They are expert fishers, fly round over a shoal of fish at a height of 60 to 100 feet above the surface and periodically dive headlong into the water with the half-closed wings; this dive comes next t the stoop of the Peregrine as the most impressive sight afforded by a bird on the wing (Smythies). They have been frequently seen along the coasts of India but I have not come across any name for the bird in any Indian language including Sanskrit. Its method of fishing however, reminds one of the following verse (already quoted with reference to the Osprey which sometimes fishes in the tidal waters) :- मत्स्यरडक निरातङक लवणाम्भसि मज्जसि । इयं हि जाठरी ज्वाला व्याकुलीकुरुते न कम् ? ॥ – उद्भट with the Osprey or the King-fisher It may well share the name associated with inland lakes and rivers. 76 TROPIC BIRD - Tropic-birds are about the size of the small Gulls and resemble them in habits and appearance. They are rare along the Indian coasts and no Indian name is recorded for them. Generally speaking a Tropic Bird would pass for a समुद्रकाक 77 ERIGATEBIRD These are large black tropical sea-birds given to piracy. Their food principally consists of fish snatched from other fishing birds like Pelicans, Gannets, Cormorants, or Terns. They are the most aerial of birds except the Swifts. No Indian name is recorded for them but their habits remind one of the Hindi name gear (robber) for a "kind of bird" and Sanskrit er as one of the names for a Crow. Like other sea-birds without specific names this too would go by the general name of समुद्रकाक or समुद्र- लुष्टाक. 78 PETRELS Petrels are, with some exceptions, the smallest of sea-birds about the size of the Common Myna and despite their fragile appearance they have wonderful powers of flight and are perfectly at home at sea in the wildest storm. They have slender but long legs and webbed feet, and, when feed- ing, pat the water with their feet, springing along the surface in a series of hops with wings outspread. I know of no Indian name for them but Sanskrit would be as good for them as for the Gulls. 79 SPOONBILL A tall white wading bird recognized by its black spoon-shaped bill, yellow at the tip. It is seen in flocks on the margins of the larger jheels, sand-banks of large rivers, etc. When feeding it wades in shallow water with its neck stretched out and moves the half-immersed bill from side to side with a regular action. "It rises spirally to float aloft" (Cambridge Natural History), and is often seen "flying in single file in long white gleaming lines at a considerable height above the ground-moving-in a very regular and stately manner (Smythies). It is undoubtedly the दविदा (v.l. दाविदा) of the बाज संहिता –"आतिर्वाहसो afarà art", and the name is after the fa shape (a spoon) of its bill. The definition and synonymy given in this definite : बकजाति: दवितुण्डो दविक्रौञ्चश्व दविंदा । This makes it clear that the fag (lit. Spoon-bill) belongs to the tribe of Herons or Storks ("fa", corresponding almost exactly to ORDER "Herodiones" as accepted in the Fauna of Birtish India, Birds). The selection of the bird for the Wind-god is based on the bird's flight as already set forth above. A flock rising spirally aloft typyfies a tornado or wind-storm marked by an inward spiral motion of the air with an upward current in the centre carrying up with it leaves, sprays of grass, etc., while the straight flight in a line represents a regular breeze. Yet another name for the bird is बजाक • खजाका (fr. खज 'a churning stick and ‘a ladle, spoon') : खजाकः पक्षिणि ख्यातः खजाका दविरुच्यते-प्रणादिकपर्व टीका 1. 24.34, 2. 4.68. 3. verse 2106, खजाक: स्यात्पुंसि दघ्नो विकारे विहगान्तरे-पेरुसूरि प्रणादिक पदार्णव This name is justified in both senses of the word as the bird moves its bill both right and left like a churn and the bill also resembles a spoon. "eforqu सकुन" of the commentary on वेस्संतर जातक is no other than this bird although it has been mistaken there for me, the Black Ibis. 80 IBISES 1. Three different species of Ibis belonging to fa (Art. 79) are found in India. A long, slender and curved bill is common to all three but there are differences in body-feathering and colour of the plumage. They also differ in their habits. 2. i) The White Ibis is wholly white except for the skin of the head and neck which is bare and of a bluish-black colour. The young bird, however, has a feathered head and neck which becomes bald as it reaches the adult state. It is a bird of inland waters, like swamps, tanks and rivers and feeds principally on small fish, frogs, insects etc. Ordinarily it is a silent. bird but during the breeding season it has a remarkably loud booming call. The flesh of this bird is described as being "execrable" to cat. ii) The Black Ibis is a dark brown and black bird except for a con- spicuous white shoulder-patch and a bare black head ornamented with a triangular patch of brilliant red papillae with the apex at the crown and cut off square at the nape. Here again the head of the young is feathered. This Ibis is found more often in open country or dry culti- vation as fish does not form any part fits diet which consists chiefly of insects and most kinds of fallen grain, and it is only on occasion that it resorts to water for frogs. Unlike its white cousin and the Storks it is less inclined to rest and meditate, and is always on the move in search of food. Its call is a scream consisting of two or three notes. The important difference as regards habits between the White and the Black Ibises is that the former is always associated with water and finds its food along the water's edge and by wading in the shallows while the latter has to wander about a good deal on dry land and fields in search of its insect and grain food. This is the main reason why I cannot afford to "rest and meditate" like the other. Their names werfe (art and arceffer) and anfe (refer i.c. 'a wandering bird') respectively are based on their way of life just described. iii) The Glossy Ibis is distinguished by a permanently feathered head and the plumage is dark-brown and chestnut. It moves about locally in an extraordinary manner changing places as a breeding and non- breeding bird, but it is essentially a bird of the marshes and large masses of water and does not frequent cultivated fields and open meadows. This 382 Birds in Sanskrit Literature bird is the पत्राटी of the कल्पद्रुकोश and the oldest names of the three forms, Black, White and Glossy are आटि, शराटि, and पनाटि, respectively. कवार (के मूर्ध्नि वाला: केशाः सन्ति अस्प) is another name for the Glossy Ibis and fully corresponds to पवाटी. Tantalus falcinellus given for it in M. Williams has now been changed to 'Plegadis falcinellus. 3. The white and the black varieties are known in Hindi as कचाटोर (also मुण्डा, 'the bald' and सफेद बुज्झा 'white striker?-fr. श्वेतविद्धक ?), and करांकल, respectively and the Glossy Ibis as कोवर or कोवारी. In Western India (Cutch) the Gujarati names of the Black and White Ibises are रण नो कागड़ो and रण नो घोलो कागड़ो i.e. 'the crow and the white crow of the Runn respectively. 4. Sanskrit synonyms relating to these birds are:- शरारिराटिराडिय-अमर. (i) (ii) आतिस्त्वाटि: शराटिका-वैजयन्ती. (iii) आटी भेदे तु पवाटी स्यान्नान्दीमुख इत्यपि-कल्पद्रु. (Cf. कवार, Tantalus falcinellus, the Glossy Ibis, per Wilson in M. Williams). (iv) दात्यूहः कालकण्ठक: अमर. (v) कालकण्ठनीलकण्ठौ... दात्यूहे .. शिखावले-हेमचन्द्र. (vi) शितिकण्ठस्तु दात्यूह काकमद्गुः कचाटुर:- त्रिकाण्डशेष. (vii) दात्यूहे कालकण्टकः – अभि. चिन्तामणि; मेदिनी. (viii) जलकाकस्तु दात्यूहः स च स्यात्कालकण्टकः । – राजनिघण्टु. (ix) बकः कहः -अमर (x) काकमत्स्यात्खगौ ध्वाङक्षी-अमर. (xi ) ध्वाङक्ष: काके वके–हेमचन्द्र. धूङक्ष्णा तु श्वेतकाकः स्यात् — वैजयन्ती. (xii) बके को बकोटवत्-अभि. चिन्तामणि. (xiii) बकः कङ्को बकोटा तीर्थसेवी च तापस:- धन्वन्तरि (xiv) बकोट: शुक्लवायसः–त्रिकाण्डशेष. बकस्तु शुक्लवायसः कल्पद्रु ( xv) पिचुल: जलवायसे—मेदिनी. 5. The first two synonymies mix up several birds including the anfe (v.1. आडि, आट, आटा, etc.) and शराटि as discussed in Art. 70, while the third regards पवाटी (the fully feathered), Glossy Ibis, as a variety of बाटी but incorrectly includes the नान्दीमुख (v.1. नन्दीमुखी), the Nukhta Duck, Art. 84-c. Nos. (iv) to (viii) relate to the Black Ibis as a black-necked bird like the Peacock, and call it दात्यूह and जलकाक. The epithet कालकण्टक most probably does not refer to its plumage as assumed in अभि. चिन्तामणि but to the red papillac on its head- कालं सिन्दूरमिव रक्तवर्णाः कण्टका: अढकुराः शिरसि यस्य; कालं 'red lead', Tbises 383 cf. कठाहक below and रक्तशीर्ष आटी of डल्हणाचार्य in Art. 70. काकमद्गु-the Cor morant, is placed in No. (vi) (see Art.74) where कचाटूर (v.l. कचादु: fr. का hair for a scar and अ to move, or कचेन शुष्कवणेन सह अटति in reference to the bald head and neck which also look as if burnt or scarred ) is the White Ibis known as कचाटोर in Hindi. The name जलकाक for the Ibises is preserved in Cutch, where the black form is known as the Crow of the Runn and the white as the White Crow of the Runn. More correctly, however, जलकाक should be the White and भूकाक the Black Ibis. The name जलकाक connects equations Nos. (x) (xiv) with the White Ibis, which is, therefore, हवास ( ध्वाद - पोर वामिते from the bird's booming call), कह (calling near water), बक, बकोट and शुक्लवायस as well. The constant association of this Tbis and the Common Grey Heron (क) with water and their habit of resting in स meditation are stressed by the epithets तीर्घसेवी and तापस in No. (xiii). 6. Reverting to equation Nos. (iv)-(viii), it seems advisable to consider the name वाल्यूह a little more closely. In its application to these birds it is possible to derive the word in two ways First from दालं or दाति — for a curved knife or sickle used in villages, in reference to the sickle-like bill of the birds-दात्रेण दात्या वा भक्ष्यमूहति प्राप्नोति स्त्रियां दातिः न द्वयोः दावं लविवं-- फल्प; कहः पूर्वाप्राप्तस्य उत्क्षेपणम् - शब्दकल्पद्रुम Cf. "Father Sickle", the name for the White Ibis in Egypt. Secondly, per क्षीरस्वामी on अमर-"द्वितीयं तृतीयं वा रूपं वहति विस्यवाद, तस्यापत्यं वात्यूहः” and this may well refer to a change from the feathered head or head and neck of the young to the baldness of these parts in the adult birds, as also to the third form, viz., the fully and permanently feathered Glossy Ibis; or again, the statement may refer to the three different forms (रूपाणि) of the Ibis found in the country. 7. आटी as Turdus ginginianus', now 'Acridotheres ginginianus', i.e. the Starling known as the Bank Myna; माटी मेद (w.r.of वाटीभेद) as “a name of a bird"; and वाटी for “a species of bird in Charaka" in M. Williams are all incorrect. आटीभेद is merely a descriptive expression meaning a kind of आटी' used to define पवाटी in No. (iii) above, and वाटी is the result of a faulty separation of the compound कारण्डवाटी into कारण्ड and वाटी instead of कारण्डव and बाटी. It occurs as "कारण्डवाटीजलवायसानां" (Coot, Black Ibis and White Ibis) in वसन्तराज, 8.14. Some editions of चरक also incorrectly give वाटी for बाटी. 8. Other names for the Black Ibis are (i) भूकाक (भूमी काक इन) as a kind ] in शब्दकल्पद्रुम, (ii) कठाहक same as दात्यूह or a kind of fowl' (M.W.). This is from कटाह the shell of a turtle (कटाह कूर्मकर्पर, तादृशं कं शिरो यस्य; the of 1. भूकाकः–स्वल्पकङ्क, कञ्च, नीलकपोत: These are (a) the Pond Heron (b) the Black Ibis as against जलकाक for the White Ibis, and (c) the Blue Rock Pigeon respectively. It may be noted that जल, or वारि-वायस (फाक) also means the Cormorant. In the former काक stands for a bird in general so that भूकाक is a ground-bird' and in the sense of a Corr monant the expression जलकाक means water-crow though it is not always posible to maintain this distinction, e.g., in Cutch the Gujarati names for the Black and White Ibises are रण नो कागड़ो and रण नो घोलो कागड़ो respectively. 384 Birds in Sanskrit Literature papillated head of the bird resembling the rough and grannular shell of a turtle; cf. कालकण्टक), and (iii) पक्ष-बिन्दु (वक) from the white patch on the wing. The first two names are evidently in opposition to जलकाक (i.e. शराटि ) and wg (implying a bald and smooth head) for the White Ibis. 9. The Pali for आटि is आट or आटा mentioned in वेस्संतर जातक, 2106 where the White Ibis with a booming call is distinguished as "arrerafcarefas". The Commentator's rendering of are as afgereg is, however, incorrect, for दबिमुख is the same as दविकोच, the Spoonbill (Art.79). आडि is really form of anfe and is given by Hemachandra in his far, 8.24 along with साराडि for शराटि. The निघण्टुरलाकर translates आटी as a kind of Heron (बगली). Prakrit 10. fyr for a kind of water Crow should really signify the White Ibis as fe means 'Cotton' and the name implies the white cotton-like plumage of the bird. आढा सेतीय of प्रश्नम्याकरण and आडा सेतीक of पाश्यसद्दमहृष्णवो are from Sanskrit we+arrer i.e. the White Ibis. anfe or art is thus both a general name for any Ibis and specific for the Black Ibis as will appear presently. 11. The struggle between the Brähmaṇas and Kşatriyas for social and political supremacy in ancient India has been beautifully allegorised as a duel between their leaders, sage afas and sage farfa, transformed by mutual or curse into the art and birds मार्कण्डेय पुराण, styled as "art--". The combatants, art and , are described as brothers, being sons of (probably formed form for a 'Heron' or ) in मत्स्य पुराण- "बकभ्राता रणोत्कट: आडिर्नामा"-156.12 and also in स्कन्दपुराण, कौमारिका खण्ड, ch. 28. This relationship indicates similarity of form and family affiliation, and the inconclusive fight shows practical equality in size and strength as well; Cf.-- तुल्ये बले तु बलवान्परिकोपमेति-पंचतंत्र पराक्रमन्ते युद्धेषु सममेवोभये भटाः सभारज्जन शतक The birds, therefore, are the Black and the White Ibis. The import- ance of the fact that afers, the Brahmaņa sage, possessed of war, i.e. spiritual power or lustre, assumes the form of art would be clear from what follows. 12. The flesh of the Black Ibis (anfe), must be given to a baby-boy. at the अन्नप्राशन ceremony according to पारस्कर गृह्यसूत्र, 1.19; if the father wants the child to acquire wpr (holy lustre) when he grows to manhood. Why should the Black Ibis typify agrade? First, because it has a white wing- 1. दात्यूह अन्धकाक in अष्टाङ्गहृदयकोश. 2. The White Ibis is "execrable to eat" while the flesh of the Black Ibis is "very good" (Jerdon ). The हारीत संहिता, मांस वर्ग, Ch. 11 also recommends the flesh of बाढी-"आडी वातविकारकासहूननी बल्या तथा दीपनी." Ibises patch on a dark body signifying the sun against a deep blue sky.¹ Second, because the bird has a bald head indicative of spiritual wisdom, and third, it wears an auspicious triangular patch of red papillae on the back of the head representing the sacrificial fire. The last two characteristics and the metallic gloss on the plumage are acquired by the bird in adult life only and these strange features, unique in the bird world, would seem to invest it with special spiritual significance The above points are, perhaps, borne out by the following few extracts from sacred literature :- 385 (i) मयि अग्निस्तेजो दधातु... मयि सूर्यो भ्राजो दधातु । - आश्वलायन गृह्यसूत्र, 1.21.4 (ii) अथ यतैतदङ्गाराचाऽऽकश्यन्त इव तहि हैष भवति ब्रह्म स यः कामयेत ब्रह्मवर्चसी स्यामिति तह ह स जुहुयात्... - शतपथ ब्राह्मण, 2.3.2.13 (iii) पसिस्रजी होता भवति... एतद्वै ब्रह्मवर्चसस्य रूपम् । - कृष्णयजुर्वेदीय तैत्तिरीय ब्राह्मण, 2.7.1 Sāyana comments परिस्रजी खलतिः शिरसि सगाकारेण परित एव केशा न तु मध्ये यदेतद् द्विजवेशस्य लक्षणं खलत्यादि तद् ब्रह्मवर्चसस्वरूपम् । अतः तदनुकूलेन रूपेण ब्रह्मवर्चसं प्राप्नोति । (iv) स्वस्तिकस्तु त्रिकोणक:-वैजयन्ती, i.e. स्वस्तिक is an auspicious triangular mark, a triangular crest-jewel (M.W.). It is interesting to note that the Glossy and the White Ibises were held sacred in Egypt. 13. The Black Ibis, found in the open and away from water, was favourite quarry for purposes of hawking with the Peregrine or Shaheen and is mentioned by the name of दात्यूह (=कालकण्ठदात्यूह) in a book on Falconry: अतिदूरगतानान्तु कङ्कदात्यूहपक्षिणाम् । लक्ष्ये मोको बर्या हि जनयत्यद्भुतं रसम् ॥ – श्यैनिक शास्त्र, 6.37. The quarry tries out-wit the Falcon by mounting higher and higher but the latter rises still higher and finally makes her stoop and brings the bird down. The Ibis often escapes by rising very high into the sky. It is this flight of the bird which has probably given it the name of (flying high into the sky). This is, however, subject to M.W.'s rendering as a gallinule' being correct. It has also inspired a beautiful simile where 1. Cf. Dr. A. B. Keith's observation in his introduction to the translation of the afer. afgat, "white of course is the Vedic symbol of the Sun as in the round white skin which represents the Sun at the gre..." p. cxxxvi. 2. In the alternative खेगमन (= कालकष्ठ) would be a White Wagtail which is sup posed to disappear into the sky and descend again to the earth from there. Cf. a in Art, 26; Cf. also at the magical power of flying into the sky. or 386 Birds in Sanskrit Literature the pearl necklace of king महाबल with a deep blue sapphire in the centre has been compared to a V-flight of Bar-headed Geese with a Black Ibis as the leading bird :- तद्वक्षसि पृथाविन्द्रनीलमध्यमणिर्बभौ । कण्ठिका हंसमालेव व्योम्नि दात्यूहमध्यगा ॥ -जैन आदिपुराण (गुणभद्र ), 5.6. बढी and काक (i.e. जलकाक White Ibis ) dwell at a lake on the Vindhya mountain : आडीकाकबलाकाभिः सेवितं कोकिलादिभिः -स्कन्दपुराण, रेवाखण्ड, 2.22. Verse 8 of the Subhasita, p.219 mentions आटि, the Black Ibis, as moving along the edge of a lake : चरतु स्वच्छन्दमाटिस्तटे । It will now be seen that the आटीमुखयन्त्र of सुश्रुत is a pair of long curved tongs and the illustrations of it in published books including The Surgical Instruments of the Hindus by Dr. G. N. Mukhopadhyaya are incorrect. पालकाप्य (3.12.74) calls the instrument as दात्यूहं ( दात्यूहमुखं ), दात्यूह being the Black Ibis or आटी. dedication the 14. The strikingly white plumage of the White Ibis and its constant association with water has appealed to Sanskrit poets more than the other Tbises, butit is always mentioned by the name of बक. This name, it must be remembered, includes in a wider sense also the Herons, Storks and even the Flamingo and it is, therefore, very necesary that the identity of the particular bird meant in a given context is carefully determined. A few examples of बक, बकोट, श्येतबक, श्वेतकाक, and ध्वडक्ष or धुडक्षा as the White Ibis are given below :- मनुस्मृति prohibits this Ibis (बक) as food as also its wanton killing, while it decrees that a person guilty of stealing fire would be reborn as a बक, The origin of this last punishment is to be found in White Ibis to the Fire-god at the Horse Sacrifice-धुडक्षाग्नेयी – वाज. संहिता, 24.31; and "अग्नये धूडक्ष्णा" -सैत्ति संहिता, 5.5.19 where धुडक्षा and घूडक्ष्णा mean the White Ibis (from ध्वाड-पोरवाशिते, to utter a loud cry; both the Crow and the White Ibis are noisy and share the name ब्वाक्ष between them). The reason for naming the bird to the Fire-god is to be found in the bluish- black colour of the bare skin of the white bird's neck resembling skin that has been scorched or burned by fire. A parallel idea occurs in the शतपथ where a yoke bullock is said to partake of the nature of fire because that part of his neck which bears the yoke loses the hair and appears to have been scorched by fire : . दक्षिणा अनड्वान् वा स हि बहेनाऽग्नेयोऽग्निदग्धमिव ह्यस्य वहं भवति । -शतपथ ब्राह्मण, 4.5.1.15 1. 5.14; 11.195; and 12.66. 2. It is also very significant to note, in this connection, that the God of Fire himself has been called afera black-necked, in V. S. 23.13, and animals having black necks in particular are sacrificed to him, e.g. कृष्णग्रीवा आग्नेया VS 24.6, 9, 14, i.c, यः पाप्मना गृहीत स्वात् स आग्नेय कृष्णग्रीवमालभेत- TS 2.1.4.6. 387 The White Ibis occurs in parties which have been called बकप्रकराः by तोलिम्बराज who, however, makes them stop eating fish in their immediate neighbourhood because they have been charmed into inaction by the sweet tunes of Lord Krsna's flute :- निकटेऽपि गतान्गतकेलिकरान् मकरान्तसर सुबकप्रकराः । Ibises These Ibises flock to the shallow edges of tanks and rivers. दुष्टबकोटसंकटतटोद्देशास्तडागादयः । सुभाषित, 222.33. The deceitful tactics of the apparently gentle and polished ministers of state dressed in spotless white have been beautifully compared with the fishing methods of the White Ibis :- 'वहिरविकृतवेषैर्मन्दमन्दप्रचारैः निभूतनयनपातः साधुताकारसारैः । निश्कृतिनयविनीतश्चान्तरेतरमात्यैः तिमय इव बकोटवंचिता के न लोकाः ॥ हरिविलास, 2.10. यशस्तिलकचम्पू, 3.191. Verse 13 under स्थानमाहात्म्यम् in सुभाषित, 86, institutes a parallel between the moon and the White Ibis (बक) and declares the superiority of the latter because it has entirely white wings (पक्षी) as against the two fortnights (पक्षी) of the former both of which are partly light and partly dark. Numbers of these birds moving quietly through the reeds or resting amongst them until the next urge of hunger, have been held up as a model of prudent and cautious behaviour for persons finding themselves in a difficult situa- tion in enemy country. The श्वेतबक, श्वेतकाक, and ध्वादक्ष in the examples below is the White Ibis in groups :- मकंवच्छ्वेतवाकीयैरुपायैः स्वयितां सुराः । भजस्व श्वेतका कीर्य॑मिवधर्ममनर्थकः । --स्कन्दपुराण' -महाभारत ईदृशः श्वेतकाकीय राज्ञःशासनदूषकैः । -मृच्छकटिक यस्य दस्युगणा राष्ट्र ध्वाङक्षा मत्स्यान् जलादिव । - महाभारत This bird is never found away from water except when roosting for the night, and the sight of one on a hill-top is, therefore, considered unlucky : 1. Kaumarika Khanda, 21.236. 2. XII.105.15; also I.47.12. To separate the compound श्वेतकाक as श्वा + एत+काक as suggested by some is absurd. See R. B. Raddi's edition of मृच्छकटिक, Bombay, 1909, 3. IX.41, Raddi's edition. 4. XI.142.29. 388 Birds in Sanskrit Literature "शिखरे शुक्लवायसः (अशुभः) -नारदीय महापुराण शुक्लवायस does not mean the albino form of the common Crow, for it would be inauspicious anywhere and not only on the top of a hill. 15. Poets have often instituted a comparison between a White Ibis () and the Swan (both all-white with black bills and feet) stressing the difference between their feeding habits, gait, etc. The Swan is praised for his supposed power of separating milk from water which the poor Ibis can not do. Such poetry is, of course, of af type containing a satire on persons devoid of merit but aspiring to high rank. A single example should be enough EXT: श्वेतो बकः श्वेतः को भेदो बकहंसयोः । नीरक्षीरविवेके तु हंसो हंसो बको बकः ।। सुभाषित The White Ibis shares the habit of 'resting and meditation' with the Storks and Herons-all going under the common name of , and it is a familiar theme with the poets to describe the seemingly innocent but really fraudulent conduct of men in different walks of life as efe, and such men as बकसाथ or ज्वाइझवती. स्तब्धग्रीवो मौनी पिहितार्धलोचनः शश्वत् । सजलो जनो य आस्ते स किस ध्वाङक्षव्रती प्रोक्तः ॥ The first line describes correctly the attitude of the White Ibis when fishing in the shallows. For other examples see Art. 82. 1. Ch. 56.750. 2. 221.6. 3. महेन्द्रटीका on हेमचन्द्र, 2.330. 81 STORKS Eight species of Storks are found in India. They tall and stately birds with long legs, long, stout and powerful bills, and a plumage of striking colours-characters which make them conspicuous wherever they are found. They often soar very high, like and in company of Vultures. They are almost omnivorous and feed on all sorts of animals, such as frogs, fish, crabs, snakes, locusts, small birds and mice. Some, like the Adjutant Stork, feed also on carrion. A few serve as food for another type of omnivorous creature --Man. With one exception (the Adjutant) they are voiceless and give expression to their emotions by clattering their long bills and indulging in a sort of dance during the breeding season. As a class or group they are ger and fall under the larger category of

• which corresponds to the Order Herodiones. Their voicelessness has

been recognised in a verse on the virtue of silence :- आत्मनो गुणदोषेण बघ्यन्ते शुकसारिकाः । बकास्तत्व न बध्यन्ते मौनं सर्वार्थसाधनम् ॥-सुभाषित, 86.1. Four of the larger Storks are named after their physical features in fe and gar literature, e.g., the White and Black Storks with red bills and feet are called (जलजा) रक्तपादतुण्डा in गौतमस्मृति, ch. 17; the महाभारत calls the White-necked and Black-necked Storks as fafe: (fafer black and white), while, शंखस्मृति, 17.26 and गरुडपुराण, 1.97.70 name all the above four as C. The specific individual names for the different members of the group may now be considered. 1. The White Stork (42 inches) is only a winter visitor to North India and remains with us from September to about the end of March. It is all white except for the wing-quills and some wing-coverts which are black. With his red bill and legs and a predominantly white plumage set off by black wings it sa beautiful object when seen green grass near

• Prakrit derivatives like fire and from Sansk. Er for the White Ibis or have

been applied not only to the Ibis but also the Storks and the Flamingo, and it is from the Storks () that and afget for a particular dance resembling that of the storks, and measure of time in music, have passed into Sansk.-See M. W. under Birds in Sanskrit Literature 390 water, and he is the or described as : मृष्टाभरणसम्पन्नो भूषणैरकंसन्निभैः । महाभारत, 12.170.21. Here the ornaments of the colour of fire or the rising sun (ar) are the red bill and legs of the bird and, as this is the most beautiful of the Storks, he has been well named बकराज. * He is also the बक of the बरुकुलीरककथा, पञ्चतंत Pt. 1, 7th tale, where his Egret-like thin and white neck is described as "मुणालनाल-घवला मृदुग्रीवा", and he is also the Stork par excellence of Aesop's Fables. He has been incorrectly listed with the Sarus in aff where the adnouns like रक्ततुण्ड, रक्तपाद and अखवल्लभ suit him better than the Sarus (Art. 62). 2. The Black Stork (40 inches) is principally of a black colour glossed with purple, bronze and green, and has red bill and legs. It is a bird of open marshes and wet ground away from villages. He is the feres or कालीक ("क्रौञ्चे, बके" - वाचस्पत्यम्, शब्दकल्पद्रुम, etc.) corresponding to Hindi सुरमाई (of the colour of सुरमा, collyrium, and hence black; cf. कालिक-कृष्णचन्दन). The name मीलाङ्ग (black-bodied) as a synonym for सारस in धन्वन्तरि and राजनिषण्टु is probably due to a confusion between a Stork and Crane or to misunder- standing of an older equation like. "tara" where are meant 'a water bird' only, for the Sarus is neither blue nor black. far should, therefore, be an adnoun for this Stork just as it is for the Purple Heron and is yet another name comparable with the last but it has incorrectly been given as synonym for अतिजागर in शब्दकल्पद्रुम for the नीलकञ्च. This latter is the most wary and suspicious Purple Heron as defined in the कल्पगुकोश:- नीलकीचोऽतिजागरः । दीर्घग्रीवश्च नीलाङ्गो 3. The White-necked Stork (36 inches) is a glistening black and white bird with a conspicuously white neck, black bill and red legs. As a soaring bird this and the Black-necked Stork have been mentioned as fuf: in where Arjuna speaks of the great speed of his chariot drawn by white steeds :- मृगाः शृगाला: शितिकण्ठाच काका, गृध्रा बकाचं व तरक्षवश्च । 5.48.104. in the verse are the Adjutant Storks mentioned elsewhere in the com- pany of Vultures as carrion eaters. शितिकण्ठ a homonym for the Black- necked and White-necked Storks as already stated. The solemn looking White-necked Stork occurs single, in pairs or in small parties about rivers, jheels, tanks, etc., and is often seen "standing motionless on one

• The great Tulasidas, author off, compares this with the g

(cygnus davidu):- चरनचोंच लोचनरंगो चली मराली पाल । छोर नीर विबरन समय बक उपरत तेहि काल ॥ दोहावली, 333. Storks leg as if absorbed in meditation" (Salim Ali), thus recalling the following verse of which is true not only of Storks but also of the Common or Grey Heron, also called a बक :- मत्स्यार्थी चरति तपः सुचिरं निस्पन्द एकपादेन । तीर्थेषु बकतपस्वी, तेन विहङ्गान् गतो दम्भः ।। 391 कलाविलास, 1.93 (का.मा. Pt. 1) He is known in Hindi as मानिकजोड़ ( मणिचूड ?) from his green-glossed black crown though our Muslim friends explain the name with reference to a story which need not detain us. He also shares the name ar with the next species. 4. The Black-necked Stork (52 inches) is also a black and white bird. with red legs and black bill. He is a r in Hindi because of the black parts being glossed with metallic hues (g) and the pied plumage (m), and er in Sanskrit. er is 'a large kind of Crane-Ardea sarunga- according to Carey quoted in M. Williams and the term evidently refers to both the birds. Another name for him is ta by which he is men- tioned as an inauspicious bird in महाभारत : कृष्णग्रीवाश्र्व शकुना रक्तपादा भयानका:-5.143.25. Again, the Griffon Vultures (पाण्डुरा) and Storks in the रामायणः पाण्डुरा रक्तपादाच विगाः कालचोदिताः - 6.35.31. The name makes it just possible that the name farfars may not after all be a homonym covering both the White-necked and the Black- necked Storks as suggested above and may be specific for the former alone.

• The Painted Stork is also a kind of

TTC as a back-formation). The dancing propensity common to Storks as a class is more highly developed in the Black-necked variety than in others. This dance and music of their clattering bills has been fully described by Hume in his Nests and Eggs, vol. 3 and by other observers as well. "Two birds (male and female gravely stalk up to each other and when a yard or so apart stand face to face, extend their long wings, and flutter them rapidly, with the points of one bird's wings flapping against those of the other; they then advance their heads till they nearly meet and both simultaneously clatter their bills. This display lasts for nearly a minute after which one walks a little apart, to be followed after a moment by the other, when they repeat the performance; and so on for perhaps a dozen times" (Smythies). It will now be seen that the equation "जायानुजीवी बके" – (विश्वप्रकाश and ) can only refer to this Stork who is a i.e., a dancer, actor and even musician, all in one. art is thus this particular Stork. In the known as TCT in Hindi (Sansk. Birds in Sanskrit Literature alternative, it may also be a common name for the Storks as a group. The (stork, having terribly large mandibles looking like plough- shares) in the following should be the Black-necked stork with a twelve inch bill. He is a "more regular fisher than most Storks" and has, next to the Adjutant, the largest bill of all. The Adjutant is excluded as the verse is descriptive of the season :- अस्यां तरङ्गितनुतोयपलायमान - मीनानुसारिबकदत्तकरालफालाः ॥ 392 काव्यमीमांसा, Ch. 18 5. The Gigantic or the Adjutant Stork is not only the largest but also the ugliest and most formidable member of the present series. The male is five feet long and stands four and a half feet high, distinguished by a bare red head and neck, and a long pouch of skin hanging from the neck and resting against the chest. The enormous, thick, four-sided bill is wedge-shaped and measures no less than thirteen inches. The wing- expanse exceeds twelve feet. He is indeed a monster ainong birds. The English name Adjutant is derived from his "deliberate, high-stepping military gait as it paces up and down" (Salim Ali), and fully corresponds to Sanskrit दीर्घंपाद (दीर्घः पादन्यासः अस्य, long-paced) as against दीर्घजरूप (long- legged) for other Storks and the larger Herons. Names like-or- are after his bill. He is essentially a scavenger and performed his duties as such in India till not very many years ago and was one of the most familiar birds of towns and villages, and naturally won for himself quite a number of epithets with and as the basic names. They are listed below:- उरगारि उरगाशन, दीर्घपाद कालपृष्ठ कोलपुछ गलेगण्ड गलेशुण्ड गृहबलि प्रिय द्वारबलिभुक् दारबलिभु, स्त्रीदत्तबलिभुक् मर्कट (पर्कट ? ) – मक (v.1. मरकक) स्कन्ध-मल्लक फर्कटस्कन्ध शुक्लाक्ष पुण्डरीकाक्ष बृहन्वन्चु महाचम्चू सिंहनाद etc. अभि. चिन्तामणि and बैजयन्ती have mixed up some of the above names with those for the Brahminy Kite and Pallas's Fishing Eagle, but fare and groft have kept the Kite and Stork apart (Art. 52-C &E). Coming to the propriety of the names in the above list, fe and (both in Wilson and the latter in M. Williams) means the Garuda and a kind of 'crane' and this 'crane' clearly refers to both forms of Adjutant who eat snakes, apparently from analogy with the snake-eating habit attributed to the mythological Garuda. These names are the origin for Hindi firen (fr. ef frog or snake and fir to swallow, later, corrupted to far bone- swallower) and probably also the element 'argala', in the older scientific name of 'Ardea argala'. Unfortunately, however, the name ger led some- one to identify it with Sansk. aferer (a dog) and to apply the latter to this bird, and that is how it finds place in wr. M. Williams also, no doubt similarly influenced, gives arfergree as a name for this Stork. This

• The aranfea (noisy) are in the next verse is the White Ibis (Art. 80).

Storks 393 last really means the medicinal plant or creeper अस्थिसंहारी of भावप्रकाश, गुडच्यादि वर्ग (Vitis quadrangularis), Hindi हाड़जोड़ी supposed to help join up broken bones. Both the Adjutants are known as in Hindi because they eat snakes which supports the derivation of fe given above. Adnoun as is from the Stork's black back and this is shared by Pallas's Fishing Eagle and the Black Buck antelope, while tages (er is Prakrit for chest, and the name means 'a bird with a tail in front of the chest) and गलेगण्ड (also गलेशुण्ड-निषष्टुरत्नाकर) refer to the long pouch. The sericsद्वारबलिभुक्, दारबलिभुक्, and स्त्रीदत्तबलिभुक् is after the scavenging habits of the Adjutant. A Hindu woman does not make any daily ceremonial arfer and what is humorously described as 'afe in these names is the house- rubbish, offal, scraps of animal and other food which were formerly, and in the villages even now, thrown out of doors (r) by the women, and these the Adjutant turned up for offal, scraps, etc. It is in this sense that this (द्वारबलिभुक्) कङ्क is placed in the list of fवकर birds in चरकसंहिता (Lahore edn.). It is also possible that the original name was only arcafing and due to an error in copying are became a which in turn led to "a" as a clear substitute for rc. No other Heron or Stork found in India turns up at these rubbish heaps, though the White Stork takes its place in Europe. No Indian male Stork or Heron is known to receive food from the female during courtship or when sitting on the eggs, and the following verse from the arrafat would seem to be based upon a misunderstand- ing of the name afere for a which is on a par with the absurd statements about the अष्टापद and उत्पादशयन (Art. 71 ) :- स्वयमुपनीतरशन: पुष्णन्ती नीडनिवृतं दयितम् । सहजप्रेमरसज्ञा सुभगा गर्व बकी बहतु ॥-599 (a monkey) is yet another humorous name for this quaint looking bird, and, if from * to cleanse, as assumed by on RV 10.27.20 where he interprets मर्क. as मार्जयिता or शोधपिता would mean a 'scavenger' which the bird certainly is. Or again, the name may mean 'a small devil' after the mythological demon #. The name, however, may well be from root -, in which case the correct form would be, and this would make the bird an attendant on 'death' with Vultures, e.g., upon cholera epidemic or the battlefield, as a carrion-eater. The first of the following two synonymies has mixed up the adnouns or epithets for three different wg birds, viz. the Brahminy Kite (y or 44-84-), Pallas's Fishing Eagle (fx-), and the Adjutant, while the second has confused those for the first and the third bird :- कङ्कस्तु कर्कटस्कन्धः (कर्कर ? ) पर्कट: (मर्कट: ? ) कमलच्छदः (कमन-? ) दीर्घपादो प्रियापत्यो लोहपृष्ठश्च मल्लक: वैजयन्ती 394 Birds in Sanskrit Literature कङ्कस्तुकमनच्छदः । लोहपृष्ठो दीर्घपाद: कर्कट: स्कन्धमल्लकः ॥ – अभिधानचिन्तामणि The correct names कर्कटस्कन्ध (कर्कर–?) and स्कन्धमल्लक for the Adjutant have suffered mutilation in both, i.e., one of them in each synonymy. Both the names refer to the bird as if he is holding a pot or vessel about his neck or shoulder, and correspond to for a beggar who carries his bowl hanging from the neck and in front of his chest (e). by itself cannot mean a Heron as in M. Williams. The epithet belongs to the above named Kite with a white and bright chestnut plumage and not to the repulsive looking Adjutant "with the coarsest and most tumbled of plumage." Both the Adjutants, funny-looking bald-heads, have been jocularly named in Hindi चन्दियारी ( चन्द्रिनारि enemy of the barber; Cf. Prakrit -bald) as they never need a hair-cut ! The उणादि of श्वेतवनवासिन्, 3.66 equates गृत्स with कङ्क. Now if गृत्स is from Tas suggested by M. Williams would be the Brahininy Kite which greedily snatches away tit bits from other birds like the Kite. If on the other hand we accept Sāyana's derivation "निगरणाद् गृत्सः" —–—ऐतरेय आरण्यक, 2.2.1, com., would be either the Common Grey Heron or the Adjutant from their habit of swallowing their food. The latter, however, is known to gulp down or swallow at one stroke an entire dead cat or half a leg of mutton and the probability is thus in his favour. If so he would be the गुत्स कङ्क (proud of his powers of eating or swallowing) is the name of a Vedic sage and is camparable with of the are for Pallas's fishing Eagle-Art. 52-C. On this analogy, however, would seem to refer to the Brahminy Kite which shares the names of and with the fishing Eagle, d it is ssible that this particular was also known as - Art. 52, E. Finally, three more synonyms for the Stork, one and बृहत्संहिता, must be mentioned. पुण्डरीकाक्ष [ चरक corresponding to शुक्लाक्ष of from चरक, सुश्रुत refers to the Adjutants, both of whom have white irides. The Adjutant bellows like a buffalo or a cow separated from her calf (Hume in Stray Feathers, vol. 7, pp. 32 & 51) and was also believed to "roar like a tiger" (Charles Knight in Pictorial Museum of Animated Nature, vol.2, 1871), and would therefore seem to be the सिंहनाद of बृहत्संहिता, as a bird of augury. It is doubtful, however, how far this last is a bird-name and does not refer to the roar of a lion as lions were quite common in North India. till a few centuries ago. The Adjutant is the only we that eats carrion and numbers of these have been known to consort with the Vultures both when soaring high and at a feast on dead animals (Stray Feathers, vol. 4, 21 and Cassell's Book of Birds) and the mentioned in the following in company with

• For other syonymies see Art. 52, Section E.

Storks 395 Pallas's fishing Eagle (g), Tawny Eagle (), Imperial Eagle (gi), and Vultures as feeding on dead human bodies and animals killed in battle is the Adjutant Stork :- अतीव हृष्टाः श्वशृगालवायसाः बकाः सुपर्णाश्च वृकास्तरक्षवः महाभारत, 7.50.9; see also 6.2.17 गृधाः कङ्का बका: श्येना वायसा जम्बुकास्तथा-- शृगालगृधवायसाः परं प्रमोदमादधुः क्वचित्स्थितोऽतिभीषणः भवचन्श्व (शवं तु ? ) चवितो बकः - Ibid. 7.97.13; see also 5. 143.19 मत्स्यपुराण, 153. 137. Similarly the of the ea, 300 ready to attack a lamb or kid, if near enough, is the Adjutant. The, again, in the following is the snake- eating Adjutant who in an atmosphere of spirituality prevailing at her- mitage permits snakes to play about freely in his body plumage :- फणिनः कङ्कबर्हेषु निविशङ्कं विशन्ति च । पद्मपुराण, 6 उत्तरखंड, 184. 28 This ugly and fierce looking Stork is also the physical basis of the g of Indian mythology e.g, in the भागवत, 10.11 where he is called महाबक. 6. The Smaller Adjutant resembles the Adjutant but has no pouch, and not being a scavenger does not "haunt civilization". He naturally shares such of the names for the larger bird as do not refer to the pouch. Prakrit for a refers to these Storks as if they have lost the hair on their heads from itches, cf. "मुंडा कंडू विणट्ठेगा कण्डू कृतं वैविनष्टशरीरे- अभि. राजेन्द्र under कंडूविणट्ठेगा. 7. The Painted Stork in a little smaller than the White Stork, with a white plumage closely barred and marked with shining greenish-black above and with a black band across the breast. The eyes of the young are brown and of the adult, straw-yellow. If the Adjutant is this should be the काचाक्ष * of सुश्रुत.. This name has been rendered as a बृहद्बक in the Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series edition of g (Benares). The werffor also has काचाक्ष for बृहद्बक, while डल्हणाचार्य takes it for the Indian Pied King- fisher with hazel irides and the epithet may well belong to both the birds- this Stork as and the Pied Kingfisher as . The Hindi for this Stork is कठसारंग (काष्ठ सारङ्गबक), i.e., a smaller variety of सारङ्गबक, and it was probably known as काष्ठसारङ्ग as the name is in line with काष्ठमुक and काष्ठकदली. पिंगलक्खग (पिङ्गलाक्ष having yellowish eyes) of the Jain औपपातिक सूत्र and प्रश्नव्याकरण should be the same as काचाक्ष or this Stork. 8. The Open-bill Stork is easily distinguished from its curious bill which has a clearly visible gap between the two mandibles. It feeds

• T, wax, hence, having yellowish eyes. 396

Birds in Sanskrit Literature chiefly on fresh-water molluscs or shells which it breaks open before. swallowing. In many Indian dialiects it is known as 'the shell-breaker' and घोंपल (Sansk. पोङ्गक shell- विश्व ) in Hindi and शामूक भंग (शम्बूक with भजन breaker) in Bengali. Sansk. g (more correctly perhaps ) for a kind. of bird in विश्वप्रकाश may be for this bird सुश्रुत mentions अवभञ्जन (अब may be a mistake for वट or पुट for a shell ?) as a particular bird in connection with surgical instruments one of which was designed after the shape of its bill. Now a bill with a curious gap like the present bird's is not likely to have escaped the keen eyes of सुश्रुत and he must have modelled an instrument upon it resembling a pair of black-smith's tongs. No particular instrument is however mentioned by the name of अवभज्जन मुख but one called अन्तर्मुख (having space between the jaws ?) is described as मध्यमुख regarded as synonymous with the former :- अन्तर्मुखमि मध्यमुखम् तल्लक्षणमाह -अष्टाङ्ग लप्रमाणेन जिह्मधारेण चाप्लुतम् । शस्त्रमन्तर्मुखं नाम चन्द्रार्धमिव चोद्गतम् - डल्हणाचार्य The expressions मध्यमुख, जिंघार and अर्धचन्द्र clearly point to the inter-space between the jaws, their curved edges and crescent shape respectively, characters that fit in admirably with the inner and outer contours of the bird's bill, and it is suggested that this अन्तमुख is the instrument made after the bill of अवभजन or the Open-bill Stork. शम्बूकभब्जन too may well have been its name. The list of water-birds given at p. 198 of हस्त्यायुर्वेद of पालकाप्य contains several incorrect readings, e.g., वर्चका for वर्तका, परिप्लुत for परिप्लव; and कुक्कुर for कुक्कुभ and I would amend the expression कुटभेदक to पुटभेदक which would make sense with पुट-पुटक meaning 'a shell' and may be rendered ‘shell-breaker' or the Open-bill; Cf. Pali पुटभेद, 'breaking open a bean Is Pali पटिकुट्टक of बेस्संतरजातक, verse 2098 a wrong reading of पुटकुट्टक ? the It has already been stated that the larger terms कौ and बक compre- hend the Storks and Herons, and the Open-bill has naturally been referred to by these names in अन्योक्ति type of poetry :- कोचश्चश्व पुटेन कुचितवपुः शम्बूकमन्वेषते सुभाषित, 41.70 शम्बूका अपि सन्ति नेति च बकैराकर्ण्य ही ही कृतम् Ibid. 221, 30. Pali सिथिलहनु (having the lower mandible loose or relaxed ) is mention- ed as one of the birds the quills of which could be used to feather an arrow : यस्य पत्तेए वाजितं, यदि वा गिज्झस्स... यदि वा सिथिलहनुनो'ति-मज्झिमनिकाय, सुत्त 63 I need hardly add that fafarga is a most fitting name and a correct redering of the English name Open-bill for the bird. Storks 39.7 As there is reason to believe that the physical basis of the semi- fabulous भारण्ड (भार+ अण्ड, looking like a huge egg, or laying a large or heavy egg), भारुण्ड, भेरुण्ड, etc. of the Purānas, Pañcatantra, etc. may be the Adjutant Stork or some other bird, I conclude this article with just a suggestive note on it and it must be clearly understood that what follows is pure conjecture. Some of the references to these mythical birds and lexical information bearing upon them are noted below :- (1) (2) ( 3 ) a भारुण्डा नाम शकुनाः तीक्ष्णतुण्डा भयानका: (4) (5) (6) ( 7 ) (8) एकोदरा पृथग्रीवा भारण्डा इव पक्षिण-पश्चतन्त्र भारुण्ड सामगीताभिः अथवंशिरसोद्गतः - महाभारत, 1.70.39 (9) (10) ( 11 ) ( 12 ) (13) ते निर्हरन्ति मृतान् दरीषु प्रक्षिपन्ति च Ibid. 6.8.11 b भारण्ड उत्तरकुरुदेशजशकुनपक्षिणि शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि मनुष्यवदनाश्चान्ये भारुण्डा इति विश्रुताः- Ibid. 12.169.9. भेरुण्डा बायसा गृध्रा हंसाया पक्षिजातयः-नारदपुराण, 77.88 चिच्चिक: (चचिक:) पक्षिराट् तव भेरुण्डो योऽभिधीयते (द्विमुख:) ब्रह्मपुराण, Ch. 164. भेरुण्डचायभासाश्च परावतकपिञ्जली-पाराशरस्मृति, 6.7 गिळूलय भारयडो- गृधोलूक भारण्ड:-रिष्टसमुच्चय, 176 द्विमूर्द्धाशकुनि:-- Progeny of दनु in मत्स्यपुराण, 6.17. भेरुण्ड son of जटायु in Ibid 6.36. वेलाधरः भारण्ड:- परिशिष्टपर्वन्, 2.408. भाग्ण्ड: – उत्तरकुरुदेशजशकुनपक्षी। इति पुराणम् – शब्दकल्पद्रुम भेरुण्डी भीषण खगौ; वारुण्ड: खगउद्रिणि-हेमचन्द्र भेरुण्डोभीमदर्शन पक्षिणो भिदि-विश्व. (14) हरियलिङ्ग शकुन- a vulture with a bill like the trunk of an elephant-Pali Dictionary (P.T.S.) (15) गलेशुण्ड–पक्षिविशेष in निघण्टुरत्नाकर (15) a भेरुंडो चिवक:-दे.ना. ( 16 ) रुण्ड - mutilated body Examination of the above extracts shows that भारण्ड and its variants refer to (i) a so called two-faced bird, (ii) a human-faced (moustached and bearded ?) bird, and (iii) bird with a powerful vioce and carrion-cating habits of a Vulture-all of great size and formidable or fearful appearance. First, the two-faced bird: The giant, flightless and now extinct Pigeon, the Dodo, of Mauritius was known to European navigators by names like 'Dodaarsen', 'Dodaars' and 'Duodo. The etymology of these names has not been satisfactorily solved even though all the facts about the bird and these names do not go beyond the sixteenth century. The Indian voyagers. too must have known or at least heard about the bird which had a huge 398 Birds in Sanskrit Literature body larger than the Turkey-Cock and standing near about two feet six inches high-rudimentary stumps in place of wings, head with a large massive bill in front and a short curly tail at the rear. It is probable, therefore, that, looked at from a distance, the bird appeared as a large egg-shaped object (ur+a) or having two heads, as it were, one at either end of its body, and from this last feature the Indian sea-men probably called it fr (cf. fe in No.6 and fraff in No.10 above). This far was probably taken up by the Dutch and others as 'Dodaarsen' which later got corrupted to Dodaars, Dodaers, and finally to Duodo (See 'Dodo' in Enc. Brit. 11th ed.). That one of the birds had its origin across the seas is amply proved by the story of the adventures f related in Book X of the Jain work बुजग माहात्म्य of धनेश्वर, a poet at the court of fenfer, king of g (the Kathiawar peninsula on the west coast of India) who ruled over the country about 1100 A. C. sailing overseas in a merchant vessel runs aground in mid-ocean on a coral reef. The name we may thus refer either to the large egg-shaped body of the bird or the large egg laid by it. This would furnish a basis for the mythical भारण्ड of पञ्चतंत, द्विमुख of ब्रह्मपुराण and भारण्ड as वेलाधर (a coastal bird), also are as a water-bird (reff) of Hemchandra, No.8 above. Second, the so-called human-faced wer said to carry dead bodies to a deep valley would seem to refer to an old practice of exposing the dead. After the flesh had been picked out by other Vultures the Bearded. Vuitures would then work upon the bones, pick up and drop them from a great height on the rocks below to break them into bits for their own food. This would explain as the son of who is no other than th Bearded Vulture (Art. 51), and also was a bird of omen with Vultures and Owls-Nos. 3,4,9&11 above. The mention of the synonyoms w and in these is very significant. The thick black rictal bristles over- hanging the bill and the tuft of bristly hair hanging down from the chin against the white face of this Vulture combined with his large and intelligent looking eyes are comparable with the moustache and beard on the human face-No.4 above. It may also be recalled hower of the Rāmāyana has been very nearly anthropomorphised; Cf. also 'यत् श्मश्रुण तत् पुरुषाणां रूपम्' said of a bearded goat in तैत्तिरीय संहिता, 2.1.1.9. Third, as a fearful bird with a powerful voice or may well be the awful looking Adjutant Stork with a bellowing or roaring call attributed to him. The fa (No.2) should therefore be a charm sung so loudly as to strike terror in the heart of the enemy. This Stork would also seem to be the effer (No.13) bird of Buddhist literature, the twelve to fifteen inch pendent pouch of the bird being supposed to resemble the trunk-characteristic mark (fr) of an elephant. In the वेस्संतर जातक the commentator explaining the expression सकुनानं च ओपातो in verse 2249 refers to eff as a bird capable of taking away small children. It is well known that this Stork readily swallows a leg of mutton or a dead cat entire, and he would also strike at any living thing Storks 399 he can swallow at a gulp; cf. the story in , 300 where this Stork is said to be ready to attack a lamb or kid, and if he can have a chance he would certainly not fail to make a meal of a small human baby as well. The reference in may also be to the Bearded Vuture formerly reputed to carry off little children. The name as (No.14), however, significantly points to the Adjutant as the faf bird. That , prohibited as food in No.7, was a real bird hardly admits of a doubt as the passage expressly mentions both kinds of we, the Bearded and the Neophron Vultures, and the probability of as a fearful (f) bird is definitely in favour of the Adjutant Stork (Nos. 5,7&8). It is also to be noted that Hemachandra's equation, "at tevrent" -note the duals- clearly refers to two different birds of that name and it is suggested that the two birds are the Bearded Vulture and the Adjutant Stork. We, therefore, have three different kinds of wr or birds-(i) the बेलाघर or द्विमुख भारण्ड, the Dodo; (ii) the मनुष्यवदन भारण्ड, the Bearded Vulture; and (iii) the हस्तिलिङ्ग or गलेशुण्ड भारण्ड, the Adjutant Stork. 1. Birds comprised within the Heron group are easily distinguished from the storks by their thin, dagger-shaped and pointed bills. The epithet or adnoun w for a Heron is really descriptive of the whole group as कृशचञ्चुबका as against बृहच्चञ्चुबकाः for the Storks (बृहन्चञ्चु-पक्षिविशेषे दीर्घपादे, i.e. a Stork- शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि; दीपंपाद, a long-legged heron- M. W.) Barring a couple of exceptionally large Herons, like Great White-bellied Heron of Bhutan, the majority of the birds in this group are of medium and small size which also helps to separate them from the much heavier and long legged Storks. 82 HERONS, EGRETS AND BITTERNS 2. The typical Herons, with the exception of the Pond-Heron, are fairly large birds, over a yard long, and their plumage is a mixture of grey, white and black or these with some rufous-buff and chestnut. The com- monest are the Grey Heron and the so-called Purple Heron which has no purple in its plumage. 3. The Grey Heron (39"), who e prototype in Europe is known as the Blue Heron, is a tall grey bird marked with black and white, often seen brooding "almost motionless by the side of water." It has a long droop- ing black crest and white long feathers falling over the breast. It is a solitary bird and sometimes "wades in shallow water with slow deliberate paces, the neck outstreched" (Whistler), watching for fish or frog to come within striking distance. It is one of the five different birds bearing the common basic name of mentioned in the lexicons and is the (having a thin pointed bill), and simple or forg. for has as in the list of names for Herons, Egrets, etc., and as the term also means a cloud (cf. for 'a cloud' in M.W., and note that the black and white colour-pattern of the Grey Heron is also far) it should be another name for this bird. The complexion of lord Kṛṣṇa has been compared with the colour of a dark cloud and the plumage of the बलाहक bird : short. बलाहकाज्जननिभं बलाहकतनूरुहम् हरिवंश, 1.24. 1. कङ्कमुख quoted in forceps of सुश्रुत and कङ्कमुखबाण of रामायण (Cal. Edn.) 6.79.69 H, refer to the shape of the thin, pointed bill of this Heron or the next. It is rather significant to note that the bird is known in Hindi as (collyrium) which is also the colour of the cloud in the above verse. This Heron was a great favourite with falconers both in Europe and India and has been mentioned by the name of in श्वैनिकशास्त्र :- अतिदूरगतानान्तु कङ्कदात्यूहपक्षिणाम् । लक्ष्ये मोको बर्य्या हि जनयत्यद्भूतं रसम् ।। - 6.37. 4. The Grey Heron is not a skulker like its cousin, the Purple Heron, and has been the subject of popular observation so that its ways have been well described as a 6 in poetry :- Again, स्थित्वा धैर्यादुपाम्भः समजठरशिराचक्रमूत्तिर्मुहूर्तम् । धूर्त: संत्यक्ततीर: कतिचिदपि पदात्युच्चकैः कुञ्चिताघ्रिः । पश्चाग्रीवां प्रसायं त्वरितगतिरपां मध्यमाविश्य चञ्च्वा चञ्चन्तीमूवंकण्ठः कथमपि शफरीं स्फारिताक्षो बकोऽत्ति ॥ न भ्रूणां स्फुरणं न चन्च चलनं नो चूलिकाकम्पनं न ग्रीवाचलनं मनागपि न यत्पक्षद्वयोत्क्षेपणम् । नासाग्रे क्षणमेकपाददमनं कष्टकनिष्ठं परं यावत्तिष्ठति मीनहीनवदनस्तावद् बकस्तापसः ।। -सुभाषित, 208.24. -Ibid. 229.232. Reference to the birds' habits and the crest in these examples helps to identify the as the Grey Heron. 5. कङ्क as a sporting bird is also mentioned in the पद्मपुराण :- चकोरांच मयूरांच कङ्कतित्तिरिमूषकान, (कुक्कुटान् ? ) उत्तरखण्ड, 51.25. fe distinguishes the cautious and slow-stepping Grey Heron as f from the long-paced Adjutant, in describing the different styles of the movements of a horse trained for purposes of war. Slow and cautious steps are aff and high-stepping long-paced motion the कागति (अर्थशास्त्र, अधिकरण 2, ch. 30). The renderings of the different gaits or foot-movements of a horse have gone wrong at least in some cases in the translation by R. Samasastry. ef is not a crow as in M. Williams but the (Grey Heron) with its thin and sharp-pointed bill with which it spears fish in water. and faxr both equate it with and not काक. 6. The Eastern Purple Heron (38") is a bird of about the same size as the Grey Heron whose prevailing colour is grey on the wings and back, black on the belly and chestnut in the remaining parts. It is a great skulker and spends most of its time amongst reeds in marshes, tanks, etc. It is intensely curious and its long neck may often be seen stretched up above the reeds 402 Birds in Sanskrit Literature to watch passers-by. In other respects it does not differ from the Grey Heron. The definition of a given in het would seem to refer to this bird : नीलकी चोऽतिजागरः दीर्घग्रीवध नीलाङ्ग, where afar refers to the wariness of the bird and far to the dark grey colour of the wings and back. The epithet framfare for a Heron is most appropriate for it as it is descriptive of its long neck, small head and pointed yellow bill held perpendicularly amongst reeds like a new lotus shoot. It is also the as defined करु: निश्चलाङ्ग स्यात्'–कल्पद्रु, where the adjective fier describes its attitude when "frozen". The Grey Heron being, its cousin, the Purple Heron, is appropriately named and the विकाण्डशेष would seem to be in error when it equates क with arfing, the Adjutant (cf. are below). The mistake is due to the fact that the Adjutant is also a g. In the same way, is wrongly equated with a Crow because the Crow is fee and the latter has been mistaken by some for (see . and M.W.). Here the error arises from a confusion between arfare and afer (the House Crow and the House Sparrow). The Little Egret (Ardea nivea in M.W.) or any other Egret or Heron in nature is never a गृह or द्वारबलिभुक् 7. No individual Sanskrit name is available for the rare but the largest of Indian Herons, the Great White-bellied Heron (55") of the Bhutan Terai, but who can say if it was not known as on the analogy of names like महाकौव्य, महाहंस, महासुपर्ण, etc.? The fact that one of the smallest Herons, the Pond Heron, goes by the name of erlends considerable support the above suggestion. 8. Three kinds of the True or White Egrets are common in India. They are pure white at all times and of a slenderer build than the Herons. The Large Egret occurs in two sizes: the Western form is a little larger than the Eastern but both are similar in all other respects. They are all in Sanskrit but each kind has also been separately named, principa!- ly according to size and certain other characters. (a) The Lage Egret (35-36") is the ज्येष्ठ बलाका of चक्रदत्त on चरक; बकेरु of the lexicons and ar of the Mahabharata. We have seen that the related terms and refer to the allied birds, the Grey and the Purple Heron respectively. Similarly, when is the all-white White Ibis, बरु (resembling | *) should be the Large Egret, all white and of a comparable size with it. war in the following verse has perhaps been doubtfully rendered as a r or Egret, for it appears to be merely a 1. The equation लोहपृष्ठस्तु कङ्क: स्यात्-अमर, may well be homonymous and in cludes this Heron which has a chestunt back like the Brahminy Kite. This is supported by its Hindi name, लाल अंजन, the Grey Heron being simply अंजन. 2. Incorrectly equated with war, a wrong reading for var, one of the water-birds in . M. W. gives only the latter (Art. 65). Herons, Egrets and Bitterns 403 descriptive epithet of a full-grown white heifer, nevertheless it is clear that the term, independently of the context, has that meaning, and as the simile relates to a full-sized cow the particular Egret meant by the com- mentator, Nilakantha, must be the Large Egret :- महाश्वतेव माहेयी वने जाता विहायणी । उपातिष्ठत पाञ्चाली वासितेव वरर्षभम् ॥ M.Bh. 4.17.11. This Egret grows three sets of long plumes from the region of the shoulder and they extend some inches beyond the tail during the breeding season. This particular feature accounts for the Pali name चेलावक (चेलबक) 1 for it in the कुणालजातक, 536; cf. Pali चेलकेतु for the Paradise Flycatcher which too carries two white ribbons in its tail (Art. 11). The of VS 24.22-33 should be the Large Egret. (b) & (c) The Smaller (28") and the Little (20) Egrets are and बलाकिका respectively. बकेरुका, again a diminutive of बकेरू for the Large Egret, is a synonym for बलाकिका ("बकेरुका बलाकिका" and "बकेरुका बलाकाभिद्" -हेमचन्द्र and विश्वप्रकाश ). The equation, "बलाका बिसकष्ठिका"2–अमर and अभिधान चिन्तामणि applies to both these Egrets of small size after their thin white necks, and the following examples refer to one or the other: स्वलकमलमुग्धवपुषा सातङ्काङ्कस्थितंकचरणेन । आश्वासयति बिसिन्याः कूले बिसकण्ठिका शफरम् ॥ पश्य निश्चलनिःस्पन्दा बिसिनीपने राजते बलाका । — Sansk. of गाथासप्तशती, 1.4. - आर्यासप्तशती, 607. The story of a perched upon a tree and 'dropping' into the face of a Brahman who was sleeping under it, and who reduced the bird to ashes with the fire emanating from his angry eyes, told in the Mahabha- rata, relates to one of these very common small Egrets: उपरिष्टाच्च वृक्षस्थबलाका सन्यलीयत । तथा पुरीषमुत्सृष्टं ब्राह्मणस्य तदोपरि ॥ - 3.206.3. The story is retold in the पद्मपुराण, 5-सृष्टिखंड, 47, with बक (White Ibis ) substituted for the बलाका. The Little Egret wears "a crest composed of two very long attenuated but not decomposed feathers" as part of the breeding plumage and is the बलाका सिचिनी (शिचिनी बलाका) of the लोलजातक, 274, while the homonymous 1. that wears, as it were, or skirt about its waist. 2. बिस and मुणाल are different in सुश्रुत 6.46.17 and mean thin and thick lotus roots or stalks; cf. मृणालकण्ड for the Flamingo (Art. 83). The names बलाकिका and बिसकष्ठिका have been inadvertently used for the Hamingo (बलाक, मुणालकष्ठ) in नेमिनिर्वाणकाव्य, 4.43,46. This illustrates the danger of mixed synonymies in our lexicons, Sanskrit Literature equation "शिबी चन्द्रविहङ्गमः"विकाण्डशेष refers to it as शिखी (crested) and चन्द्र for (shining like the moon and hence, white). Prakrit सेडी for a kind of bird in अभि. राजेन्द्र is the same as श्वेता for बलाका; cf. सेडिया-श्वेतिका, खटिका (Ibid), i.e. chalk. For बलाका as the female of the Flamingo see Art. 83. (d) The Cattle Egret (20") is also a ef but as it undergoes a change of colour from white into a beautiful golden-buff on the head, neck and back during the breeding season it has been named farger or पिङ्गलिका and करायिका in Sanskrit though name appears to be a Prakrit form. This Egret is a constant companion of cattle as it feeds on their insect parasites and chiefly on grass-hoppers and other insects distur- bed by them while grazing, and this habit accounts for yet another name, गोबक for it corresponding to गाय बगला or ढोरिया बगला (डोर-cattle) in Hindi. 9. The Pond Heron or Paddy-bird (18") is the commonest of the family and seen sitting hunched up on the mud, standing knee-deep in the water along the edges of tanks, streams, etc., or on water plants among the lilies and lotuses. "Its dull colours assimilate with the mud and the herbage, and the bird is tame and confiding, with the result that it is seldom noticed until it rises close to the passer-by, springing into life with a sudden flash of the white wings. To this invisibility is due the name of 'blind-heron' that it bears in several dialects (Whistler). It is known in Hindi as spare (Sanskrit or re). The lexicons do not give the Sanskrit terms placed within brackets, but there seems to be little doubt that the bird had them for its names. The commentator of 44, however, gives अन्धका in the sense of जलकारु, as a synonym for दाचूह अन्ध means both 'ditch water' and 'a blind person'. p is also a particular type of fame or wandering mendicant:- 404 तिष्ठतो ब्रजतो वाऽपि यस्य चक्षुनं दूरगम् । चतुष्पदां भुवं मुक्त्वा परिव्राडन्ध उच्यते ॥ Birds -Apte's Practical Sansk. Eng. Dict., 1890 The point about this definition is that the mendicant is not supposed to look beyond a space of four paces or feet about him. Next, there is the special meaning of ara in the freed- अन्धो भग इत्याहुरनुत्सृप्तो न दृश्यते - 12.14.1. Here the sun, not visible until it rises above the horizon, is called and the special meaning of art is explained as under:- नास्मिन् द्रष्टुणां ध्यानं दर्शनमस्तीति अन्धः which means that an object which escapes observation is known as (blind). The idea of absence of movement or movement upwards ( r) is also involved. The invisibility of the Pond Heron as it sits 1. अन्धं तु कलुषं तोयं-हेमचन्द्र (शेषनाममाला) and hence 'puddle on pond the name apers thus corresponds to "Pond-Heron", Herons, Egrets and Bitterns 405 hunched up, camouflaged in its surroundings and intently watching a few feet of mud or water about it for prey, and the sudden white flash with which it rises are thus fully comprehended in the name and also probably in , the popular Hindi name for it, is just a rendering of these names and in the sense discussed above. Names like are and for Herons and Storks (4) humorously refer to their habit of standing on one leg and apparently innocuous contemplation until an unwary frog or fish appears on the scene. The term for a very small Heron should belong to this, the most common member of the group. The Pond Heron, like the Little Egret, grows a long white occipital crest in the breeding season and for this reason shares the name of staf with the Egret, the Night Heron and the Little Green Heron (See Art.71 for the different meanings of tafe). In the verse below af affecting a Pond (during the day) is this Heron or the Little Egret :- बककोयष्टिभिर्जुष्टे पत्वले मानसं कुतः । - सुभाषित, 221.7. 10. Bitterns and Night Herons, with the exception of the Bittern, are birds of a shorter and stouter build. They also differ from Herons and Egrets in that they are all night-birds and generally solitary at all times (Finn). They are designated as (Night-Herons) by in हस्त्यायुर्वेद, 2.20, निरीत or निशेड in the mixed synonymy of विकाण्डशेष, and रजनीबक in विष्णुधर्मोत्तर 1.151. 48 where रजनीयकान् is a wrong reading रजनीबकानू. after the (a) The Night Heron (23") is truly nocturnal in its habits. Not until has set for half an hour or so do the birds leave the trees where they remain all day in the deepest shade they can get. During flight they utter every few minutes a loud, though not unmusical, squak. It has several names in Hindi after its voice, वाक, क्वाक and कुकराई (क्वाकराविन् ? ) corresponding to Sanskrit वाक ("वाकश्चन्द्रविहङ्गमः"कल्प, चन्द्रविहङ्गम is thus the same as ). This equation corresponds to "firfag" both for the Little Egret which is crested and white and for are, the Night-Heron which is also crested, and the expression af as a homonym means (i) a white bird, as well as (ii) a night-bird or one that feeds during moon-light. Like the Little Egret the Night Heron also wears a crest of long, thin, black and white feathers and shares the name of tafe or af with it and also with the crested Little Green Heron, another night- bird. क्षीरस्वामी on अमर explains the name कोयष्टि as "ओको यजति कोयष्टि:" which fits in admirably with the habit of these night-birds resting all day in heavily foliaged trees. This fact has been beautifully brought out in the following verses :--- स मत्तकोयष्टिभकान् पादपान् पुष्पशालिनः । उद्वहन्नुरुवेगेन जगाम विमलेऽम्बरे — ॥ – Rāmāyapa, 5.1.44. काश्मर्याः कृतमालमुद्गतदलं कोयष्टिकष्टीकते - मालतीमाधव, 9.7406 Birds in Sanskrit Literature and it is incorrect to render कोयष्टभक or कोयष्टिक in the above contexts a Lapwing (feefew), for the latter, not having an effective hind toe, never perches on a tree. The terms gafe and fe for different birds have been considered in Art. 71 and the latter as the Water Cock in Art. 58. (b) The Little Green Heron is a greenish grey bird (18") with a long black pendant crest glossed with green. It is a forest bird found singly along forest streams. During the heat of the day it sits hunched up on the lower branches of some thick water-side bush, refusing to move until the bush is almost hit, when, with a squak (are), it flaps lazily away to another dark and shady bush (S. Baker). Tre being the Night Heron, TT (making the 'wak' sound, or having a call similar to that of the **, the Night Heron) should be this bird. Resembling the Night Heron in habits and possessing an erectile crest it can also claim the name aften with it. The following excellent verse mentions the booming White Ibises ( in the first line), the Cormorants (, loosely or for brevity called ) taking a jump into the air before diving, the Storks frequenting a tank during the day and the Night Herons and Bitterns resorting to it at night (both called in the third line), and finally, the Swan, the 'high-brow' amongst aquatic birds, who very properly quits the Lotus- tank which shelters such a mean assortment:- यामालिङ्गय बका रटन्ति कटुकं दीर्घोच्छ्वसत्कन्धरा यस्यामंसतटावघट्टितजलं वल्गन्स्यमी मद्गवः । या शश्वन्मलिनात्मकैरपि बकैर्नक्त दिनं सेव्यते सा हंसेन मनस्विना कमलिनी युक्त यदि त्यज्यते ॥ -सुभाषितावलि, 714. (c) The Chestnut Bittern (15") of noctural habits belongs of course to the storf group of Herons and one of the Hindi for it is जुनबगला which is from Sanskrit ज्योत्स्नाबक. ज्योत्स्ना 'moon light' is जुन्हाई in Hindi, and this last has been shortened to in the compound name जनबगला which thus fully corresponds to चन्द्रविहङ्गम (cf. ज्योत्स्नाप्रिय for the चकोर). This Heron spends the day in dense reeds or feeds in deep shade along streams. It has no crest and is not, therefore, a safe. (d) The Bittern (30°) is of a golden brown colour mottled with black. It is a winter visitor only and has been found breeding at Quetta within (pre-partition) Indian limits. Its ordinary note is a hoarse low croak but it booms loudly in the breeding season. It has the habit, when danger threatens of standing with the head and neck extended sky-wards-the whole attitude and colouration being protective amongst the varied lights and shade of a reed-bed (Smythies). This behaviour of the Bittern is quite similar to that of the Purple Heron so that the equation "करु: निश्चलाङ्गः स्यात्" -कल्पद्रु. applies to it as much as to the other. The Hindi name for it is नीरगॉंग (नीर-water and गजय-to shout) corresponding exactly to गोनदं 407 Herons, Egrets and Bitterns (-water, and to call aloud) which has been wrongly equated with the Sarus due to confusion between गोनन्द and गोनदं (cf. पिचुमन्द and पिचुमर्द) गोनन्दी is the female Sarus and गोनन्द should, therefore, be her mate. as a homonym is (i) a game bird, the Great Bustard, which has a bellowing call (from a cow) and (ii) the Bittern (fr. -water) (see Arts. 62 and 63). Similarly the equation "बक: कह्नः" of अमर (के जले हुयते- fa rifer) should apply to (i) the White Ibis and (ii) the Bittern both of which have a booming call and belong to the group in the wider sense. 83 FLAMINGOS 1. Flamingos, with very long necks and legs and thick bills, 'broken' or bent in the middle, are quite unlike other birds and appear to stand in a class by themselves, but from anatomical and other features they would seem to occupy a position intermediate between the Storks () on one side and the Geese and Ducks () on the other. They combine the look of a Stork and the ways, and voice of a Goose. They have indeed been placed by scientists sometimes with the Ciconiiformes (Stork-like birds) and at others with Chenomorphae (Swans, Geese, and Ducks), and although Stuart Baker has "for the present" separated them under Order Phoenicopteri (Phoenicopterus, 'red-winged'-a Flamingo-the 'flame- coloured') he is strongly inclined to the opinion that they will have to be finally classed with the Swans and Geese under one common Order. It is interesting to note in this connection that, except for its original Vedic name of or, so named after its extraordinarily long and very flexible neck, the later Sanskrit names for the Flamingo, viz., , ere, and even , seem to recognise its affinity to the Swan or Goose on the one hand and to the Storks on the other. Again, names like or quita (having a thin, long neck like a paraphrase of the original or lotus stalk) are merely a 2. India claims two out of the five known species of Flamingo, viz., the Common Flamingo (50") and its smaller cousin, the Lesser Flamingo (33"). The former has one of its breeding sites in the Rann of Kutch¹ 1. बरुकच्छ (बकविशिष्ट बकप्रधानो वा कच्छः जलप्रान्तः) as an ancient place-name pro- bably belonged to what is today the Rann of Kutch in Western India where Flamingos are known to breed in their thousands. According to the St. Petersberg and M. Williams' Die- tionaries the name is mentioned in कथासरित्सागर, 6.76 & 166 but the निर्णयसागर edition of the work reads w instead and it is placed on the Narmada. weg is Prakrit for which has been correctly identified with the present Broach or wt. Evidently is a different place and is probably the Rann of Kutch or the island of Kutch to the south of it. The name is analogous to other place-names like खट्वाङ्गवन, वन, que, etc., named after the particular birds that abounded at each of these places. My friend, Dr. Raghu Vira, brought to my notice the name of another country viz. arr (T) mentioned as a country of the Mlechhas or Non-Aryans in the ancient Jaina Flamingos 409 A within Indian limits, while the nearest breeding grounds of the latter are on the shores of the Red Sea, but so far as the mainland of India is concerned both the species are winter visitors, arriving about September and leaving for their breeding homes in May-June and some time as late. as July. Both move in parties or large flocks though the Lesser Flamingo s an erratic visitor, occurring plentifully in the North-West up to the Sambhur Lake in Rajasthan in certain years and scarce or altogether absent in others.¹ 3. The Common Flamingo (50") is a tall, white bird with rosy upper parts, black flight-quills, a flame-red patch on the wing and scarlet axillaries and underwing coverts. The eyes are yellow, the orbital skin pink to bright red, bill flesh-coloured and legs pinkish-red. With very long legs and neck it stands about four feet high but its body is no bigger than that of a common Goose. The heavy 'goosy' bill with an obtuse bend in the middle, the upper mandible freely moveable as if on a hinge (unlike the Goose whose lower mandible is moveable) and adapted for feeding. in an inverted position is characteristic. Its webbed feet, anserine voice and the fact that young chicks are active as soon as hatched link it up more closely with the Swans and Geese than its long legs with the Storks. Nevertheless this apparently dual character of the Flamingo is reflected. both in its Sanskrit and vernacular names: Sanskrit-, (fr. 'to curve or become small' after the long, flexible neck which when coiled round the body and with head tucked into the back makes the bird look very much smaller than at other times) बलाक, बक after its superficial resemblance to a Stork ( बक); वर हंस (बरं, कुडू, मे, श्रेष्ठे; cf. वरा turmeric; and hence either a superior type of Goose' or 'the Red-Goose' as it is actually called in Persian. 4. The effect that the Flamingo, seen singly or in the mass, whether on its feeding grounds or high up in the air, produces upon a cultured mind cannot be described better than in the words of Stuart Baker- "Although so ungainly in shape when viewd individually, the Flamingo when seen in the vast herds in which they so often collect is one of the most beautiful of Avian sights. In the distance they look like a field of work, जम्बूद्वीप प्रज्ञप्ति, 3.52. We will see in later paragraphs that बक, बलाक, and the femi- within. Aryan limits nine TT, are names of the Flamingo in Sanskrit, so that if a is the Rann of Kutch, may well refer to the territory near the Red Sea where the Lesser Flamingos breed. It is, therefore, highly probable that the ancient Indians knew the two nearest breeding grounds of both kinds of Flamingo. 1. The Lesser Flamingo is more richly coloured than the Common Flamingo and there is some crimson on the tail feathers as well. The eyes, bill and legs are different shades of red. In its habits it closely resembles the common Flamingo. 410 Birds in Sanskrit Literature snow with a rosy sunset glow upon it, then as one approaches, the snow suddenly melts into a flaming scarlet as the birds unfold their wings and sail away. When just moving from one feeding ground to another they adopt no particular formation but when in full flight form into either a wide V or a long waving ribbon." Their food consists chiefly of minute vegetable matter and to some extent of tiny animal organisms, crustacea, mullusca, etc. found in the mud of fresh and salt water lakes and lagoons. When feeding, the bird wades in a regular line with others of its kind, and bending down its long neck and head between the legs, uses its inverted bill like a shovel in which to catch and collect its food. This it obtains by moving the head backwards and forwards or from side to side and gently stirring up the mud which is sifted through the seive- like bill. Then it erects its long neck to swallow the selected food. 5. To the bird's peculiar method of feeding the the Prakrit and Hindi languages owe the picturesque terms and for the country-gardener's shadoof or simple water-lever commonly seen working at a water-hole or crude well. It consists of two posts supporting a cross beam at the top with a bucket suspended from the longer end and a counterpoise at the other. Not much of imagination is required to see that the contrivance works exactly like a Flamingo as it feeds. Prakrit means are, a female Flamingo (fem. of बलाक) and टेंका a 'water-lift' defined as कूपतुला in देशीनाममाला of हेमचन्द्र. Now this कूपतुला pair of scales at a well') is none other than the water-lever described above. Prakrit ; , are the same as Sanskrit equated with , viz., the White Ibis and a Stork (Arts. 80, 81). Ter, as we shall see, is the Flamingo defined loosely as 'a sort of or Stork'. The feminine of बक is बकी and of बलाक, बलाका. Closely associated with the picture described here and lending considerable support to it is the Hindi name ( in the Pujnab, fr. Sansk. W pendent, but 'long in Hindi with the Flamingo. , 'the tall or long Stork-like bird') for 1. Writing earlier S. Baker made the following remarks about these remarkable birds: "Flying or wading they are a lovely sight, and, often as they have been described, no one has yet been able to do justice to their beauty." Again, "Typically their flight is dis- tinctly anserine, not perhaps exactly V-shape, but more in the form of a curved ribbon, the ends fluttering backwards and forwards as the birds, more especially those at the two extre- mes, alter their position." On shorter flights the birds rise in one indiscriminate mass and continue as they have risen. (Indian Ducks and Their Allies, 1908). "To witness the simultaneous unfolding of a thousand lovely crimson and black pinions under brilliant sunlight is a sight the recollection of which will not readily be effaced from our memories" (Eagle Clarke, quoted, ibid. page 5). These extracts fully bear out the appreciative references to Flamingos (flying en masse or in formation) in Sanskrit literature of a thousand to two thousand years ago. 2. Compare 'crane' as a machine, so named after the bird with the long neck. 3. The term for the Egrets is a free and is always in the feminine gender, but areT for the female flamingo is the feminine of er for the male. Flamingos 411 6. In the following lexical synonymies, which are mostly of a mixed character, the terms , बलाक, बक and मृणालकण्ठ refer to the male Flamingo, and बलाका, मेघानन्दा and दीर्घकन्धरा to the female. बलाका in a special sense means also 'a flight of Flamingos in formation', described also as बलाकमाला or बकपंक्ति: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) क्रुद्ध कौश: – अमर, अभिधानचिन्तामणि अथाऽपस्वर: श्रीच: क्रुझ स्यात् पंक्तिचरः पुनः । शरत्पक्षी वक्रचञ्चू रक्तको रात्रिजागरः ॥ शेवलादः पुण्डरीकनयनः– कल्पद्रुकोश, -p. 329, verses 107-108 मृणालकण्ड (? कण्ठ ) काकस्तु बलाक: स्यात् - Ibid. बलाका विषकण्ठी स्वाच्छुष्काङ्गी दीर्घकन्धरा । घर्मान्तकामुक्की श्वेता मेघानन्दा जलाश्रया ॥ - राजनिघण्टु बलाका बकपङक्तिः स्यात् बलाका बिसकण्ठिका । बलाका कामुकी प्रोक्ता बलाकश्च बको मतः ॥ विश्वशाश्वतौ Reserving the terms and for discussion a little later let us take up the other names and adnouns for the Flamingo. Except for at the remaining terms in (ii) above refer to our bird as a bird of the autumn (शरत्पक्षी), flying in formation (पंक्तिचर ), having red in the plumage and a bent bill (,), living on minute water-plants (a) and wary or wakeful at night (fr). This last trait of the bird has been brought out by Salim Ali in his Article on the Flamingo in J.B. N. H. S., XLV, page 589, and S. Baker also describes it as "extremely wary and cute". बिस and मृणाल are different parts of the lotus plant both in चरक and सुश्रुत (चरक, 6.21.78 & 82; , 1.21.23 and 6.46.17), the former is the white root, the same as Hindi free or fe and the latter the Tor the long stalk of the lotus flower. The मुणालकण्ठ काक (काक i.e. जलकाक, water-bird) in (iii) equated with is the long-necked Flamingo, while art of the equa- tion "बलाका बिसकण्ठिका" of कल्पद्रु., अमर and other lexicons is the pure white Egret which too has a comparatively long and white neck. ar like s 1. Quoted in the commentary on उणादि सूत्र "बलाकादयश्च", 462, at page 524 of सिद्धान्तकौमुदी with तत्त्वबोधिनी व्याख्या, Nirnayasagar edition, 1908, and attributed to विश्व- are though the editions of these two lexicons issued by the Chowkhamba Office, Banaras and the Oriental Book Agency, Poona, respectively do not have this verse. The ओणादिक पदार्णव of पेरुमूरि, Madras, 1999, however, gives the following बलाकाबकपंक्ती च बिसकण्ठ्यां च वर्तते। कामुक्यामप्यच पुमान् बलाको बकपक्षिणि ।। 4.69-70. 2. If बिस and मुणाल are identical it is posible to take बिसकण्ठ and मृणालकण्ठ for the taller bird, the Flamingo with an extremely long neck and first and fireffor the smaller bird, the Egret, according to the rule "स्त्री स्यात्काचिन्मणाल्यादिविवक्षापचये यदि अमर, 3.5.7. It is also highly probable that with rs for the Flamingo the equally white but smaller Egret with comparatively long necks have been named as TT irrespective of sex, under this rule. 412 (i.e. Birds in Sanskrit Literature has the correct reading of मृणालकण्ठ and मृणालकण्ड in कल्पनुकोश is an obvious crror. has ut instead (p. 198). In synonymy (iv) er is probably a homonym and stands for both the Egret and the female of the Flamingo as they share the majority of the epithets in common. Both are waders and not swimmers, though they can swim), aferers (having their breeding season in North India at the end of summer or beginning of the rains), and rear (associated with water, the Flamingos more than the Egrets). Adnoun fe- or fat is specific for the Egret while the be- ing the feminine of are equated with in w is clearly more appropriate for the female of the long-necked Flamingo. vtr (the white), again, is common to both. That leaves which, if treated as a homonym, would apply (i) in the sense of water to both, and (ii) with मेघेन सह सुरतानन्दो शिशुप्रसवानन्दो वा यस्याः, to the female Flamingo in particular (See para. 13 where this topic, is discussed in greater detail). The last synonymy also is mainly homonymous, for er means (i) a flight of Flamingos in formation, (ii) an Egret, and (iii) i.e. a passionate woman metaphorically called on the analogy of the female Flamingo supposed to fly up eagerly to meet the rain-cloud for fertility, and finally ere, the Flamingo, is defined as a sort of or Stork. M. Williams' render- ing of as a kind of Crane is incorrect. 7. The Kalmuks and the Russians call the Flamingo as 'the Red Goose' (per Jerdon in Birds of India) from the red colour in the wings, also the Persians (Qaz-i-surkh). Hindi gurre for it corresponds to Sansk. बरहंस which may well inean the superior' or the red Goose' (बरः श्रेष्ठे, वरं कुसुमे-हेमचन्द्र; cf. बरा, बराङ्गी turmeric, and बरकाष्ठका the plant Clerodendron siphonanthus, the blue drupe of which rests upon an enlarged and spread- ing red calyx-Brandis, p. 508). in the following verse should there- fore be the Flamingo or the Red Goose: गायत्री नाम या सन्ध्या रक्ताङ्गी रक्तवाससा वरहंससमारूढा श्रीमत्पुष्करसंस्थिता ॥ गरुडपुराण, 1.217.5. This verse refers to the personification of the early morning prayer (eft) when the sun rises with a red glow while in the next two verses the mid- day prayer is conceived of as clad in white and described as "श्वेतपद्मासना" and "fr" because then the sun is at its brightest. The evening गायत्री is “पीतवस्त्रा” and “अतसीकुसुमप्रख्या" representing the orange-yellow of the setting sun and the advancing darkness, the arty, linseed-flower, being of a sky-blue colour. Taking all the three representations of and her colour associations it is highly probable that we in the above quotation is the white Flamingo with a rosy tinge on the upper parts and red on the wings. The Hindi erlends special support to this view. It is also 1. Cf. THT said of a flight of Flamingos in the verse from the Rāmāyaṇa quoted in para. 13 below; also it for the female Sarus who consummates her love on the ground, Art. 62 para. 10. Flamingos 413 particularly significant that we in his commentary on the verse from the बृहत्संहिता quoted at the end of this article renders बलाक as a kind of हंस "हंसविशेषः". 8. The red colour in the plumage of the Flamingo has been recognized in the name art by which it has been mentioned in the Mahabhä- rata. A particular array of an army has been named (metri causa) " क्रौञ्चारण: "1 which in plain prose should be read as अरुणकोञ्चव्यूह. This arrangement is evidently different from the and was set up like a (see f. n. to para. 1, Art. 62) but with a difference, viz., that the front or head part of the array was like a representing the out- stretched long neck of the Flamingo on the wing and a similar arrange- ment at the back of the main body corresponding to the long out-stretched legs behind, the body and the flanks of the formation being after the body and broad wings of the bird. This is fully described in the Epic beginning with the verse: व्यूह. क्रौञ्चारुणो नाम सर्वशत्रुनिबर्हणः । यं बृहस्पतिरिन्द्राय तदा देवासुरेऽब्रवीत् ।। - 6.50.40ff. On shorter flights, i. e. when moving from one feeding ground to another the Flamingos rise indiscriminately in a huge mass and fly very much lower than during migration. In such a position the red in the plumage is distinctly visible from below and this particular type of flight has been utilised with considerable effect for a beautiful simile which, mas based as it is on actual observation, combines wonderful poetic imagery with typical Indian exaggeration. A great mass of arrows feathered with the chestnut-red wing and tail-feathers of the Brahminy Kites (g) dis- charged by warriors at the enemy has been compared with a ceiling (q) of Flamingos (r) rendering the sun and the sky invisible to people in the field: अन्वधावत्किरबाणैः कङ्कपत्रैरजिह्मगैः । राजानमभिधावन्तं शरैरावृत्य रोदसी ॥ क्रुद्धः प्रच्छादयामास शरजालेन मारुतिः । ★ क्रौञ्चपृष्ठारुणं रौद्रं बाणजालं व्यदृश्यत । नैव सूर्यप्रभा राजन् न दिशः प्रदिशस्तथा ॥ – MBh. 8.51.60.66 9. We have just seen in the preceding paragraph that the was the invention of sage efe. Another invention of his, based upon a natural formation of Flamingos in the sky against a back-ground of dark rain clouds has been called the great बार्हस्पत्य व्यूह: 1. by itself therefore does not mean a a as assumed by M. W. 414 बार्हस्पत्य सुविहितो नायकेन विपश्चिता । नृत्यतीव महाव्यूहः परेषां भयमादधत् ॥ तस्य पक्षप्रपक्षेभ्यो निष्पतन्ति युयुत्सवः । हस्त्यश्वरथमातङ्गाः प्रावृषीव बलाहकाः ।। Birds in Sanskrit Literature MBh. 8.46.27-28 In this connection I would invite the reader's attention to Stuart Baker's description of the flight quoted in the foot-note to para 4 above. It is "in the form of a curved ribbon, the ends fluttering backwards and forwards as the birds, more specially those at the two extremes, alter their position." A comparison of this with the passage from the Mahabharata clearly shows that (i) नृत्यतीव refers to the fluttering movement; (ii) निष्पतन्ति युयुत्सवः to the change of places by the birds at the ends of the formation (); and (iii) the heavier elements of the army consisting of gear at the (141) rear and flanks look like the dark rain-clouds (aqua aeg:)". We thus have two kinds of a just as we have two types of formed after the flying formation and the body of the, the Common Crane (Art. 62 para. 2, f. n.). Both forms of rare bigger than the as the Flamingo (50") is larger than the Common Crane (45") and also occurs in larger masses. 10. We have seen in paragraph 6 that in later Sanskrit the Flamingo was known as बलाक and regarded as a kind of बक ("बलाकश्च बको मतः") and the following half verse from the ag recognizes its power of sifting out (i. e. eft which by means 'food' in the context) or minute semi-liquid food from water exactly as the ge is supposed to do: क्षीराणवः पयो दत्ते हंसाय न बकाय किम् ? - उत्तरखण्ड, Ch. 247. 160 The same Purāņa refers again to the Flamingo as living upon small water- organisms and rejecting other living things like frogs, fish, etc.: बको जलचरान् भुङक्त मण्डूकादींच वर्जयन् । — Ibid. 129.151 This naturally leads to a consideration of the bird or of the Hifigent where it is said to separate milk from water, and as explained in Art. 62, it is a bird with a long and flexible neck and the Flamingo as we have seen has the best claim to these names. If the faculty of separat- ing the whole of its minute food from water is literally true of any bird it is true of the Flamingo alone. The Swans, Geese and Ducks also do so 1. A similar picture is depicted in Mbh. 7.20.35, quoted in para. 14 below where white flags fluttering in the air and the chariots, elephants, horses, etc. carrying them have been compared with Flamingos and clouds. This close parallelism between the two passages helps to identitify the are also as modelled on a formation of Flamingos. 2. Does not a Lake give milk to the Flamingo as it does to a Swan? (ie. it certainly does give milk to the Flamingo as well. Flamingos 415 to some extent but the greater portion of their food consists of coarse stuff like green grass, water-weeds, crops, the larger mollusca, fish, etc. The and g (i.e. the sun pictured as the heavenly Swan) have been regard- ed as different birds in the following passages with reference to their power of separating site (liquid food) and (pure water) respectively from the impure natural waters: अद्भ्यः क्षीरं व्यपिबत् क्रुङाङ्गिरसो धिया' – VS 19.73. सोममद्भ्यो व्यपिबच्छन्दसा हंसः शुचिषत - VS 19.74. In the first verse is described as anf which may possibly mean two things: (i) af being an epithet of af the reference may be to the red. or flame colour in the plumage of the birds, the Flamingo; and (ii) resembling af and possessed of magical power (cf. t 'art, science, intelligence', in the text) enabling the to separate ofre from *. Perhaps both the ideas are involved. Similarly the term er (desire, will) in the second verse should refer to the wonderful power of the sun (the pure white Swan of the clear blue sky) who by his own free will or innate power sucks up (pure water) out of impure waters of the earth. A special capacity to extract some essential element out of the impure waters of the earth is thus common to both, viz., the earthly and the heavenly , one taking out fre and the other . Now if we examine some of the numerous Vedic equations or statements reflecting the diverse mental processes of the highly imaginative Indo-Aryans we will find that the term site stands for what to the is the essential part of the impure waters, viz., its food. The following equations are particularly interesting from the above viewpoint: (1) (2) ( 3 ) (4) (5) (6) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) सोमः पयः- शतपथ ब्राह्मण, 12.7.3.13. रसो वै पयः - Ibid 4.4.4.8. अन्तहितमिव वा एतद् यत्पयः- ताण्ड्य ब्राह्मण, 9.9.3. आपो वै क्षीररसा आसन्- Ibid. 13.4.8. आपो वै सूदो अन्नं दोहः- शत. ब्रा. 8.7.3.21 सोमो वै बाजपेयः -- तैत्तिरीय संहिता, 1.3.2.3. अन्नं वै सोमः - शत. ब्रा. 3.9.1.8. सर्वमेतदन्नं यद्धिमधुघृतम्- Ibid. 9.2.1.11. The first three of the above statements place milk and Soma juice on a Par as the two are drawn from the cow or the plant; regard them as the 1. Cr. "विद्वा पजहाति पापकं कोंचो खींपको व निषगम् ("उदान viii, 7. The कोंच of this Pali passage is evidently the "The wise man leaves the evil as the milk- drinking Flamingo the water'. C.R. Lanman's rendering of as 'Curlew' is incorrect, See his article, "The milk-drinking Hamsas of Sanskrit Poetry" in J.A.0.S. Vol 19., page 151, Birds in Sanskrit Literature 'essence' and as hidden (af) i.e. within the body of the cow or the plant. The site and it for the and g (the sun) are equally essences hidden in the muddy waters and are drawn, as it were, by both for their respective purposes. Nos. (4) & (5) connect the waters with milk (site) and food (aa) while Nos. (6) & (7)regard Soma and milk with which it is always mixed as a drink or food for strength. eft, again, in the sense of 'milk', occurs in the Rgveda and Atharvaveda as an item of food both for gods and men. It is also used metaphorically for all kinds of wealth which in Vedic times consisted principally of cattle and food stuffs (RV, 1. 104.3). It is therefore submitted that eft in VS 19. 73 quoted above. stands metaphorically for the almost liquid food (ar) extracted by the Flamingo from the water with bill which works like a seive and separates the unwanted water and retains what is site or food for itself. The same is true of the sun, pictured as a Swan, for it takes up with its rays a different essence, viz., the Soma or clean water out of the impure waters. This pure water, though named as , is also eft but in a different sense, for it is sent back in the form of rain-water, which, dropping from above in thin streams like milk from the cow's udder, is truly a kind of efte (often क्षरते:–यास्क, 2.5.4). 416 11. The above passages from VS 19.73-74 and their parallels in KS 38.1; MS 3.11.6; and TB 2. 6.2 contain to my knowledge the oldest version of the forefae attributed to the ge or Swan in later literature and which has served as a beautiful argument in the Vedanta and Nyaya Philosophies or as a motif in story. Bloomfield in his Foreword to Vol. VII of Penzer's edition of The Ocean of Story, 1926, pp. xviii-xix, has opined that attempts to explain the drinking apart of milk from water "as a feature of the natural history of the hamsa are, in my opinion, fatuous" and he cites the example of mentioned in the texts cited above. He however makes the mistake, in common with the authors of the 'Vedic Index of Names and Subjects', of rendering as the Curlew. The Curlew feeds on "insects, reptiles, coleoptera, slugs, worms, and at times, berries, seeds and seaweed" (S. Baker) and the Snipe, suggested as an alternative in the Vedic Index, also feeds on worms, grubs, tiny snails, etc. for much of which it bores into soft ground with its sensitive. bill. It is thus impossible to consider these birds as separating their food from the water. The Flamingo alone as we have seen does it to perfection and is the of the above texts which also clearly indicate the next step 1. क्षीर is described as food (अन्न) in the following passage: "तस्मै हान्यागताय सर्पिःक्षीरम् आमिक्षां दधीत्येतद् उपनिदधुः तस्य ह सुहित आस, तं होचुः सुपर्णेष एव ते बलिर्भविष्यत्येतद् अन्नम्"- "Contributions from the Jaiminiya Brahmana to the History of Brahmana literature" by Prof. H. Gertel, JAOS, vol 19, pp. 97 ff. For an explanation of the story see Art. 52. * and eft are closely associated in AV 10.10.8 where , at stands for earth and cow both. Flamingos 417 which led the people to substitute the more beautiful Swan for the Flamingo in later literature. Colebrook certainly understood the phrase, are sufer, in the correct sense when he said-"Because the bird seems, as the Hindus apprehend, to extract his food by suction from solu- tion in water" (quoted by Bloomfield a foot-note to his Foreword, referred to above, at p. xviii).1 I would only modify his statement to this extent, viz., that the bird is not the but the , that it did not merely seem to extract food 'by suction from solution in water' but actually did so in the manner explained in para. 4 above, and that the ancient Indians had a correct knowledge of it based upon observation. The following verse not only clinches the issue but also shows a clear consciousness on the part of the author that in the context means simply food and nothing else and that it is definitely incorrect to assume that site or eft is intended to mean literally a mixture of milk and water. No doubt the idea is very beautiful and tempting and has been used with great effect in didactic and other poetry but the true basis of it must be understood: मत्स्यादयोऽपि जानन्ति नीरक्षीरविवेचनम् । परं प्रसिद्धिहंसस्य यशः पुण्यैरवाप्यते ॥–सुभाषित, p. 155, verse 116. This statement is perfectly correct of the Carp family of fishes which feed exclusively on micro-organisms like the zoo-planktons and phyto-planktons, and in this respect they resemble the Flamingos. The Vedic Indians killed and ate the Flamingo and had ample opportunities to examine the contents of its stomach as well. This is clear from the following aphorism which permits the eating of Flamingo, the Common Crane and the Hornbill: क्रुञ्चकौञ्चवार्धाणसलक्ष्मणवर्जम् For a discussion of this aphorism see Art. 62, para. 10. 12. in the following passages is the Flamingo: -आपस्तम्बधर्मसूत्र, 1.5.17.36. (i) इन्द्राग्निभ्यां कुचान्– VS 24.22; MS 3.14.3. (ii) क्रुञ्ची श्रोणिभ्याम् – VS 25.6. The reason for selecting the Flamingo for the dual deity in (i) would seem to be the white and red colour of the bird, the flame colour being parti- cularly representative of the god of fire, af; and the bird's association, during its homeward flight, with the rain clouds high up in the sky goes well with the rain-god Indra. In the second passage a pair of Flamingos are the deities to whom cuts from the sit or the waist-region of the sacrificial horse are offered. The propriety of this assignment does not seem to have 1. Dr. Elliott Cones of Washington quoted by Prof. Lanman in the aritcle refered to on the f.n. to para 6, is also of the same opinion as Bloomfield. 2. "श्रोणिभ्यां दक्षवामाभ्यां कटिप्रदेशाभ्यां कुची देवी प्रीणामि।"-महीघर भाष्य. Birds in Sanskrit Literature been understood so far (see the Vedic Index sub voce शुञ्च), but, as it seems to me, soft refers to the 'fold of the flank' situated in the region of the waist of the horse. The cutaneous muscle, 'Musculus cutaneus trunci', of the horse covered by skin constitutes 'the fold of the flank' which ends on the fascia above the stifle. It has been illustrated in Fig. 276 at page 289 of The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals by Septimus Sisson (W. B. Saunders Company). This 'fold of the flank' keeps constantly expanding and contracting as the horse runs, gallops, or even walks in the ordinary way and this action of the muscle is typical of the long and flexible neck of the Flamingo in its various activities. This would, therefore, seem to offer a very probable explanation of the passage. 13. कुव्य in the following appears to be a mistake for कोच which is the reading in the parallel passages in TS 5.5. 12; MS 3. 14. 12; and KS 5.7.2 :- 418 वाचे क्रुञ्च:- VS 24.31. कन्च is the loudly trumpeting Common Crane ( Art. 62) and suits the context best, for the anserine voice of the Flamingo would be a poor substitute; 1 cf. also वाग्वे क्रौञ्चम् 11.10.1. That and कोच are two different birds has already been made clear by the passage quoted from the आप धर्मसूत्र in para. 11 above. 14. The descriptive epithet, मेघानन्दा, for the female Flamingo has already been mentioned at the end of para. 6. Its importance lies in the especial relationship established by tradition and poetic convention between the Rain god पर्जन्य and clouds on the one hand and the Flamingos or a flight of them on the other. Knowledge of the fact that these birds leave the country, flying in large formations, just as the rains are approaching undoubtedly helped in establishing the connection. Thus in the षड्विशब्राह्मण 1-2 "पुरो (moving with a vanguard of Flamingos) is an epithet of god पर्जन्य. It is however not clear why in spite of numerous references to the constant association of बलाक and मेघ (Flamingo and cloud) in literature beginning with the Rámāyana and Mahābhārata सायणाचार्य interprets पुरोबलाक as "सर्वेषां पुरोगामी मेघो भूत्वा..." and a few illustrative examples are therefore given below to elucidate the point: पुरोबलाकैरसितैमेघैर्ज्योत्स्नामिवावृताम् । - रामायण, 5.20.27. मेघपृष्ठे बलाकानां रराज विमला ततिः । -विष्णुपुराण, 5.6.41. आवृतं गगनं मेघैर्बलाकापंक्तिहासिभिः 1-म. भा. 1.138.23. low voiced 1. It is not however impossible that the author of the संहिता deliberately chose the for the goddess of speech. 2. This indicates the great height at which Flamingos travel when migrating from one country to another. The bright red underwing coverts became invisible, and the black wing-quills merging with the clouds the birds simply look white at a great height. Flamingos तत्प्रकीर्णपताकानां रथवारणवाजिनाम् । बलाकाशबलाप्राभं ददृशे रूपमाहवे ॥ - Ib. 7.20.35 बलाकिनी नीलपयोदराजी दूरं पुरःक्षिप्तशतहृदेव । -कुमारसंभव, 7.39. ताडका चलकपालकुण्डला कालिकेव निबिडा बलाकिनी । - रघुवंश, 11.15. एतैरेव यदा गजेन्द्रमलिनैराध्मातलम्बोदरे- गंर्जद्भिः सतडिद्बलाकशबलैर्मेघैः सशल्यं मनः ।। —पृच्छकटिक, 5, verse 18. घनप्रदेशेषु बलाकपंक्तयः—–—हरिवंश, 2.95.4. Clouds are said to be responsible for making the females of the Flamingo fertile : बलाकागर्भदाचं व बलाकागर्भधारिणः (मेघाः) । 、419 - वायुपुराण, 51.53; ब्रह्माण्ड पु., 1.22.36. हृष्टा बलाका धनमभ्युपैति कान्ता सकामा प्रियमभ्युपैति - रामायण, 4.20.25. The exiled यक्ष reminds the Cloud of flights of Flamingos: गर्भाधानक्षणपरिचयान्नूनमाबद्धमालाः । सेविष्यन्ते नयनसुभगं खे भवन्तं बलाकाः ।। -मेघदूत, 10. The expression "गर्भाधानक्षणपरिचय" used by the poet definitely points to his knowledge of the birds' annual migration to repeat their 'happy experience of love and parental instinct. ' The courtship of Flamingos was naturally a most rare thing in North India, for they go to breed elsewhere, and popular or poetic fiction attributed a sort of parthenogenesis to them under the influence of rain-clouds. This is reflected in the passages given above and also in a quotation from कर्णोदय given by मल्लिनाथ in his commentary on the मेघदूत : गर्भ बलाका दघतेऽध्रयोगान्नाके निबद्धावलयः । According to the Buddhist tradition also the female Flamingo becomes gravid on hearing the thunder of rain-clouds : बलाका च नाम मेघसद्देन गब्भं गण्हंति । – लोलजातक, 274. We can now see that just as the female Sarus, who consummates her nuptials on the ground, is called गोनन्दी (Art. 62) the female Fla- mingo, the बलाका, is मेघानन्दा i.e. happy in the fulfilment of her life's mission only by association with the cloud (cf. मेघाभिकामा in the verse from the Rāmāyana in the next para). 1. Literally"The past experience of the pleasure of fecundation or consummation (in association with the fertilising rain-clouds), 420 Birds in Sanskrit Literature. Artistic use of this association between bird and clouds was made in summer-houses of royal palaces where a row of Flamingos sculptured in marble, set against a ceiling painted with dark clouds, showered water from their rose-fitted beaks : क्वचित्स्फटिकबलाकावलीवान्तवारिधारा लिखितेन्द्रायुधाः सञ्चार्यमाणा मायामेघमाला: कादम्बरी, p. 323. 15. The Flamingo is undoubtedly one of the "भद्रपक्षिण:" or auspicious birds of India and has naturally won for itself a place of honour with the Rain-god, पर्जन्य, as we have seen, just like the Golden Eagle ( सुपर्ण) of Lord विष्णु, the Peacock of कार्तिकेय, and the Swan of ब्रह्मा and सरस्वती. We have also noticed the Flamingo as the बरहंस of the morning गायत्री and as the wise ॠ of इन्द्राग्नी. It now remains to cite a few examples from litera- ture just to show how well the ancients had observed the bird and its ways in nature. Hume, struck with the beauty of these birds massed near the water or flying above it exclaims: "How shall I describe the countless myriads of Flamingos that are seen either massed upon the water, huge rosy islands, or floating above it like a sun-set cloud, in all the larger lakes of Sind ? But the great poet वाल्मीकि anticipated this description, though in a different setting, a couple of thousand years ago : स तया शुशुभे श्रीमान् लतया कण्ठसक्तया । मालयेव बलाकानां ससन्ध्य इव तोयदः ॥ - रामायण, 4.12.41. Here a garland of white गजपुष्पी flowers set against the dark reddish body of सुग्रीव is compared with a flight of Flamingos seen against a dark cloud in the glow of sun-set. Their aerial westward migration to their breeding grounds during June-July when the rain clouds are advancing from the East is more often described than their return in autumn : मेघाभिकामा परिसंपतन्ती संमोदिता भाति बलाकपङ क्तिः । वातावधूता वरपोण्डरीकी, लम्बेव माला रुचिराम्बरस्य || विद्युत्पताका सबलाकमालाः... गर्जन्ति मेघाः 2. 3. गजपुष्पी - रामायण, 4.28.23. -Ibid. 4.28.20. विद्युन्मण्डलसंनद्धाः सबलाका इवाम्बुदा:-- Ibid 4.42.36. 1. The expression सञ्चार्य माणा मायामेघमाला shows that some sort of moveable screen painted with clouds in different shades was fitted to the ceiling above the sculptured row of Flamingos. Stray Feathers, Vol. 1.257. according to हिन्दीशब्दसागर is the नागदौन plant, Staphylea Emodi which bears white flowers in panicles. See Brandis, p. 181, and Forest Flora by B. L.. Gupta (1928). p. 138, Flamingos 421 This striking association between these white birds and the dark rain- clouds became so very fixed that a convention grew up among the poets. not to refer to the return flights, quite impressive enough though they must have been, in their descriptions of the शरत् or autumn season. Even Kālidāsa could not resist this tradition and is forced to sing : धन्वन्ति पक्षपवनेनं नभो बलाकाः । पश्यन्ति नोन्नतमुखाः गगनं मयूरा ॥ The हरिवंश has the following :- -ऋतुसंहार, 3.12. विजला विमला व्योम्ति विबलाका विविद्युतः |— 2.16.13-15. Not that the poet's eye is blind to the Flamingos' return in autumn but it is naturally more sympathetic to the newer and more varied arrivals, the Cranes, Geese and Ducks that are quite conspicuous both in the air and at all waters throughout North India : क्रौच्चहंससमाकीर्णा शरत्प्रमुदिताभवत्- महाभारत, 3.923.90. Nevertheless, the Flamingos are not forgotten altogether, for the unconven- tional author of the ब्रह्मवैवर्तपुराण has actually defied the poetic tradition: मालतीमालया श्यामकण्ठवक्षःस्थलोज्ज्वलम् । बकपडक्त्या यथाऽऽकाशं शारदीयं सुनिर्मलम् ॥” – 4.21.41. Needless to say that to translate expressions like बलाकमाला, बकपंक्ति or बलाका as 'a flight of Cranes' or of Egrets is entirely incorrect. Cranes, with the exception of the resident Sarus which flies low and in small numbers, are not to be seen in India during the rains while the Egrets are always with us and though they too often fly in V-form like the Sarus they do so at a very low level. It is only the Flamingos, Cranes and the Geese that fly very high, almost at the level of the clouds. In the following verse वराहमिहिर, describing the beauty of the skies (आकाशम्) at the beginning of the rainy season pictures the dark clouds as huge elephants with Flamingos in V-form for their white tusks: तडिद्वैमकक्ष्यैर्बलाकाग्रदन्तः स्रवद्वारिदानश्चलत्प्रान्तहस्तैः । विचितेन्द्र चापध्वजोच्छ्रायशोभैस्तमालालिनीलवृतं चाब्दनाः ॥ - बृहत्संहिता, 24.17. 84 SWANS, GEESE, DUCKS AND MERGANSERS Sanskrit nomenclature corresponding to the common names in the title of this Article is हंस or महाहंस, कलहंस or कादम्ब-हंस, क्षुद्रहंस or हंसक, and कारण्डव respectively, and the epitomised expression ¹ approximates in meaning to the scientific name of the family, viz., Anatidae. Indian mythology recognizes the unity pervading the family when it regards the Swans, Grey Geese and Ducks as the progeny of the first Swan-Mother धृतराष्ट्री:- धृतराष्ट्री तु हंसां कलहंसांश्च सर्वशः । चक्रवाकांका भद्रं ते विजज्ञे साऽपि भामिनी ॥ - रामायण 3.14.19.; म. भा. 1.66.60. In this verse age (the Grey Lag noted for its mellow call note) stands for all grey Geese and (the beautiful Brahminy Duck) for all Indian Ducks. In the same way (note the plural in each case) denotes the all-white Swans as is clear from references to them in the Rg Veda, literature and the Lexicons. Amarasimha and others name the Grey Geese like the Grey Lag and the Bar-headed Goose asg and, and define ge as an entirely white bird with white wings () and distinguish three different varieties of it as we shall see presently. All the northern breeding grounds of the Swans and Geese are conventionally placed at or near the lake in the Himalayas. These birds do not breed within Indian limits, nevertheless poetical convention treats them as being under the influence of love during the cold season. The reson is that they are in a good condition and keep calling to one another, and hence expressions like मत्तहंस मत्तकलहंस, for according to पाराशर quoted by भट्टोत्पल in बृहत्संहिता, 85, 28, the मदकाल for हंस, कादंब, etc. is the शरद् ऋऋतु. A. SWANS 1. The Swans with which this section is concerned are Goose-like birds, pure white when adult but with heavier bodies and longer necks. 1. The expression, however, includes also the 'ger' or the 'T' or the Common or Black Coot-Art. 58. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers Rather awkward on land, they are very graceful on water. The Whooper and the Mute Swan are known to visit the extreme North-West of the sub- continent including Sind in small 'herds' during the non-breeding season i.e., from about December-January to June-July. When the winter is very severe in Northern and Central Asia the numbers visiting this country are larger than usual. The present position according to Hume is that Swans do not occur anywhere within Indian limits outside the Himalayas except in the extreme North-West. It is, however, more than probable that in the hoary past when the so-called sportsman of the present day with his rifle and gun was not known, they travelled further east and, were, therefore, met with at least, on the upper reaches of the Jumna and the Ganges. Being large and conspicuous birds and visiting the country in small numbers they now rarely escape slaughter and have no chance to renew their acquain- tance with the country. That the ancient Indians were quite familiar with them admits of no doubt. Not only did they know the two species named above but also the smaller but rarer and more striking Chinese Swan, Cygnus davidii, pure white like the others but with red bill, legs and feet. The possibility of Cygnus davidii visiting India has been admitted by noted ornithologists like Hume and Le Messurier.³ In case these three varieties of Swan could at times be seen on the Himalayan rivers and lakes, and the ancient Indian princes must have had them, at least occa- sionally as ornamental birds on their private lakes like the Mute Swan in Europe during recent times. The pair of Swans on a Lotus tank in the pleasure grounds of a temple of Siva in Banaras mentioned in the could only be tame birds - मरालीगलनालीस्थविसासक्तसितच्छदम् Frequent references to pet Cranes, Geese and Ducks also occur in litera- ture, 2. According to a story related in the , 7.18 god avoided by transforming himself into age and later granted a boon to the bird for his help and made him permanently white :- वर्णो मनोरमः सौम्यचन्द्रमण्डलसन्निभः । भविष्यति तवोदग्रः शुद्धफेनसमप्रभः ।। 7.18.29. हंसानां हि पुरा राम न वर्णः सर्वपाण्डुरः । पक्षा नीलाग्रसंवीताः क्रोडा: शष्पाग्रनिर्मला: ।-7.18.31. also describes this favourite bird (ga) of e as wholly white :- 423 1. Stray Feathres, IV.33. 2. Game, Shore and Water-birds of India, 4th Edn., p. 252. 3. काशीखण्ड, पूर्वाधं 32.99. The verse means that out of affection the male Swan is keen on sharing the soft lotus stalk which is being eaten by the female. 424 Birds in Sanskrit Literature हंसोऽपि हिमकर्पूरशीतांशुरजतयुतिः । वरुणस्य वराज्जातस्त| येशप्रीतिमान्सदा ॥ - रामायणमंजरी, 7.339.1 The of the story is clearly a Swan and the change of colour from Juvenile to adult plumage has been explained mythically. The mount of ब्रह्मा ( हंसवाहन) is also a Swan so that the epithet सुरप्रिय for a हंस denotes a Swan-see para. Il of this and para. 6 of section B. (1) The young Whooper is pale grey-brown throughout but the adult is pure white; the bill black with a yellow base, legs and feet black. The male bird. nearly five feet long, has a wing span of about eight feet and weighs up to 19 lbs. General Osbourne, who shot one out of four Whoo- pers on the Beas (fr) in the Hoshiarpur district of the Punjab in 1900, says about the wounded bird, as long as its companions remained in sight it continued to utter its long, loud, musical trumpet call" (Stuart Baker). According to Hume and Marshall also this Swan has a loud and musical call which much resembles 'hoop' 'hoop' but when uttered by a large flock of different sexes and ages and mellowed by the winds and waves has "a really fine effect". Flocks fly in V-forma- tion and smaller numbers in a line (Edmund Sandars). It breeds on the northern shores of the Caspian, Asiatic tundras and probably as far as South Seistan so that "breeding so near India as this we may hope to have many more records of its visiting our borders" (S. Baker). This Swan has frequently occurred in the Punjab and Sind, and has been observed in Nepal and even in Rajasthan.3 The breeding and the other habits of all Swans are alike. When nests placed in shallow water or on the borders of marsh or swamp are threatened by flood they raise the level of the nests by introducing new materials under the eggs to protect them from danger. "They are very good parents and look after their young with the greatest care, the duck- bird often carrying her young ones about on her back whenever they want a rest." No wonder the Swan is a wise bird in Epic and story-literature. Bewick's Swan is very similar and subequal in size to the Whooper. It has occurred in the Punjab and Sind aud must have passed for a Whooper in the past. (2) The Mute Swan is also wholly white when adult with the base of the bill, the knob and the nail black, and the remainder of the 1. तोयेश the मानसरोवर lake the mythical home of all Swans and Geese; hence also the name सरप्रिय for Swans as v.l for सुरप्रिय 2. Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon 1881. 3. Poet 74, it will be seen, rightly places a flight of Swans in the autumnal sky at in the Kathiawar peninsula, not far from the Sind coast:- "स्मितसरोरुहनेद्रसरोजलाम् अतिसिताङ्ग विहङ्ग इसर्विम् । अकलयन् मुदितामिव सर्वतः स शरदं शरदन्तुरदिङ मुखाम् The स्कन्द पुराण pt. 4, ।। अर्बुदखण्ड, Ch. 30.56 places the धार्तराष्ट्र or Whooper Swan in the neighbourhood of the Aravali Hills in Rajasthan, and this is correct. 4. F.B.I. & S. Baker. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers bill reddish horny. The legs and feet are dull black. The colour- pattern of the young is different from the young of the Whooper. The head is brown with white tips of the feathers; sides of the head and neck are mixed grey and white; upper parts pale grey-brown and underparts white suffused with grey-brown. Its nearest breeding place is in Western Turkestan and Siberia and it is a regular winter visitor to the Northwest straggling up to Rawalpindi and Sind. They often keep in pairs and when one of a pair is wounded the other keeps company and often pays dearly for his fidelity. Parties of eight to ten birds have been observed in the Punjab. They are as large as the Whooper but have a very weak voice and for this reason are known as the Mute Swans. Both parents vigorously defend their nest and young. The female when disturbed hisses angrily and the male utters a defiant grunt. The Whooper and the Mute sometimes hybridise with each other. 425 (3) Cygnus davidii is a much smaller species. It is entirely white like other two but has the bill vermilion-red with the nail black, and legs and feet orange. It is apparently a very rare bird but an instance of its occur- rence in Dera Ghazi Khan (Punjab) in the year 1892 is given by Le Messurier in his book. 3. The Rg Veda contains references to ge as (i) a solitary bird (ii) going in pairs, and (iii) flying and calling together in a line. There is also mention of the egg, the Bar-head Goose (Section B, para 5). The following references are evidently to the Swan : The plant when crushed exudes the juice with a hissing sound duc to air bubbles coming out and bursting. This is compared to the hissing of a Swan when disturbed on the water :- “श्वसित्यप्सु हंसो न सीदन्- RV 1.65.5. We have seen that the female of the Mute Swan hisses angrily when disturbed. Writing about the voice of Swans, B. Vesey Fitzgerald also says "The Mute Swan very rarely does more than hiss severely at un- welcome visitors." It is, therefore, incorrect to translate affar as "pants" as Griffith does, for there is no reason for the bird of powerful flight to 'pant' and the comparison is between the effects produced on the and ge when they are teased (crushed being the proper word for corres- ponding to 'teased' or 'annoyed' for the ge). The Sun is called "ge: fr" in RV 4.40.5, and the reference can only be to a solitary Swan floating upon a wide expanse of deep blue water, Cf: प्रजगाम नभश्चन्द्रो हंसो नीलमिवोदकम् । -रामायण, 5.17.1. The Asvins invited to the Soma sacrifice like a pair of Swans hastening to the water:- हंसाविव पततमा सुतां उप- RV 5.78.1-3. 1. Birds, Trees and Flowers, p. 57. 426 Birds in Sanskrit Literature हंसाविव पतथो अध्वगाविव - RV 8.35.8. The Swan s monogamous and a pair, being greatly attached to each other, keep together. This is particularly the case with the Mute Swans (see above). The last two references are, therefore, to these birds. None of the Geese can be intended as they live and move in flocks of some size when away from their breeding grounds. White horses (frer: 'shining' and therefore 'white') running, in a race or otherwise, in a line are compared to Swans flying in a line : दिव्यासो अत्याः हंसा इव श्रेणिशो यतन्ते - RV 1.163.10. Freshly cut to size and barked (and therefore white) wooden sacrificial posts carried on their shoulders by men walking in a single file along a forest foot-path look like long-necked Swans flying in a line हंसा इव श्रेणिशो यतानाः शुक्रावसाना:- RV 3.8.9 The Whoopers, when in small parties, fly in a line. The Geese, on the other hand, always occur in large flocks and fly in "bunches" on shorter and in wedge-formation or very long lines on longer flights. A party of Whoopers answering the sonorous call of their leader : हंसा इव कृणुथ श्लोकम् - RV 3.53.10. आदीं हंसो यथा गणं विश्वस्यावीवशन्मतिम्- RV 9.32.3. The f g with a beautiful voice () in the verse below is the same as the सुवण्ण हंस of the जातक, and the हिरण्य हंस of कुमारसंभव (sce paragraphs 7 & 8 below) and, therefore, a young Whooper with a grey- ish brown plumage :- हंसासो ये वां मधुमन्तो अत्रिधो हिरण्यपर्णा उहव उषर्बुधः -RV 4.45.4¹ The ger dedicated to the Moon-god (VS 24.22) and the Wind-god (Ib.24.35) are clearly Swans. The Sun and Moon have often been pictured as a Swan, and its powerful flight and migratory instinct are fully in keeping with the spirit of the Wind. 4. It would appear that in the post-Vedic period when the common- est Geese of India, the Bar-head and the Grey Lag were named and respectively, the Swans, known simply as ge came occasionally to be distinguished as age. An echo of this last fact is preserved in the following equation, probably taken over from some old lexicon :- 1. Cp. "" in paragraph 10 below. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers "मल्लिको मल्लिका चैव ( मल्लिकास्यैव ?) राजहंसान्तरे द्वयम् ।” 427 हंसः श्वेतो धार्तराष्ट्री, राजहंसो मनोरम: कलहंसोऽपरः प्रोक्तो... -विश्वलोचनकोश i.c. मल्लिक and मल्लिकाख्य are two names for a kind of राजहंस. In other words, the Whooper and the Mute Swan, the area and fer of later times, were regarded as varieties of age. This finds support from aff whose skeleton at least is very much older than aw. It does not refer to the Swan with red bill and feet but only to the Whooper (ar) and the more graceful Mute Swan (मनोरम राजहंस ) and the Grey Lag Goose (कलहंस) which probably shows that af lived in the North-West of India : Later on both the Swans came to be known as as indicated above. The Whooper (or) which is the vehicle of g has also been called रच-राजहंस (See para 11 below). Similarly राजहंस in रामायण and महाभारत, where and we are also mentioned, is a Swan :- क्रीडन्ती राजहंसेन पद्मषण्डेषु नित्यशः । हंसी सा तृणमध्यस्थं कथं द्रक्ष्येत मद्गुकम् ॥ रामायण, 3.56.20. कल्याणवाचः शकुना राजहंसा: महाभारत, 6.3.68.2 क्षेमेन्द्र relates in बृहत्कथा-मञ्जरी 9 140-142, how one धर्मसेन and his wife intently watched a pair of Swans flying high in the sky before their death and were re-born as a pair of age and verse 143, ibid. describes the Swan with its long and curved neck as कुटिल कन्धर The later names, viz., धार्तराष्ट्र and मल्लिकाव्य as also पाकहंस do not occur in very early works like the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahabharata and seem to have been borrowed from Pali literature of the Buddhists. They had travelled widely in Central Asia, China, Tibet, etc. and having observed the differences in Cygnus Davidii, the Whooper and the Mute Swan, named them afresh; and in doing so they appropriated the name age to the beautiful Chinese Swan (Cygnus davidii) with red bill and feet and renamed the Whooper, the next best, as ard and the Mute 1. 'मल्लिकाख्य' is the reading in the नामचन्द्रिका edition (Bombay); क्षीरस्वामी टीका, Index III (Special words), Oriental Book Agency, Poona, 1941; 24, Bombay 1944; Devadatta Tiwaree's edition, Barcilly College, 1875 and as v. 1. in 21, Bombay 1907;-all editions of a 2. These are are the Whoopers with their beautiful trumpeting calls. The in Mahabharata 12.327.6 on the other hand should be the Bar-head Geese as the passage appears to be a later addition by an inexpert hand who has placed the (the Koel) with the Golden Eagle in the Central Himalayas-an impossi- ble thing, for the Indian Koel is "not found in the Himalayas and is scarce in the foot-hills i at their base" (Whistler). It is however possible that the scribe has changed into कृष्ण not knowing that there is such a thing as a श्वेत कोकिल as well. If 80 राजहंस समूह could well be a party of Swans, and not necessarily the Bar-head Geese. 3. Coined from year, the first Swan-mother, or as explained in the next para. 428 Birds in Sanskrit Literature. Swan as मल्लिकास्य or पाकहंस. This राजहंस being a very rare bind even in the Himalayas has naturally been left severely alone and does not figure in the Jataka stories. The title of the gre, which deals principally with the two varieties of Swan, the go and the g, and their young, shows that these Swans went by the common name of महाहंस. पालकाप्य, ch. 26, however, mentions are and ¹ in juxtaposition, and if one reads the two words as a single name it would mean the type of Swan' but as two different names they would refer to the Whooper and the Mute Swan respectively. That they are not the Geese is clear from the fact that the latter are named in the same passage as (Grey Lag). The presence of arger on the gg is mentioned in the पद्मपुराण :-- सर्वतो भद्रतां प्राप्तो महाहंस प्रशोभते । - भूमिखण्ड, 101.27.2 (Bar-head) and ge lake in the Himalayas It must be noted that were does not include the much smaller Cygnus davidii which is the राजहंस of अमरकोश whose author was a Buddhist. 5. Apart from the Geese, original sense of an all-white Swan), and, the lexicons give ga (in the (white-winged, a Swan alone has white wing quills), f(white plumaged), etc. as common names for a Swan and mention three different kinds of it, viz., राजहंस, धार्तराष्ट्र and मस्तिकाव्य :-- हंसास्तु वंतगरुचकाङ्क्षा मानसौकसः, राजहंसास्तु ते चञ्चुचरणैर्लोहितः सिताः, मलिनैर्मल्लिकाख्यास्ते, धार्तराष्ट्रा सितेतरी:- अमर.; अभि. चिन्ता. हंसो श्वेतः धार्तराष्ट्री, राजहंसो मनोरम:- धन्वन्तरि हंसो मरालो नीलाक्षः चक्रपक्षः सितच्छदः मानसौकाः परिप्लावी वक्रानो जालपादक:– वैजयन्ती. हंसेषु तु मरालाः स्युः – अभि. चिन्ता. मरातो धूसरच्छदः. . . अभव्यः स च हंसः स्यात् – कल्पद्रुकोश कालेषु तेषु (i.c. चञ्चुचरणेषु ) धवलः किल धार्तराष्ट्र: सोऽप्येष धूसरतनुस्तु भवेदभव्यः– राजनिघण्टु. चक्राङ्गः सारसो हंसे- शब्दार्णव cited by मल्लिनाथ on शि. वध, 12.44. हरिः, हरिणः हंसः- शब्दकल्पद्रुम मल्लिकाक्ष in some editions of अमर and in अभि. चिन्ता is a mistake for मल्लिकाव्य, for मल्लिक is हंसभेद both according to हेमचन्द्र and विश्वप्रकाश मल्लिकाक्ष proper is the Duck known as the White-eyed Pochard and this explains the error. Brief notes on some names and epithets in the above quotations are added. below : 1. Cf. as fa (M.W.), the Sun, can only be a Swan. 2. The कलशब्द महाहंस of मार्कण्डेय पुराण 1.11 is the Whooper Swan, Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 429 and (M. Williams)-refer to the circular or spiral flight of the birds as they survey their landing ground or water, and also to the vigorous rotary motion of their wings preparatory to settling down. -All the Swans and Geese come across the Himalayas and as the Bar-headed Geese were known to have their breeding grounds at the Himalayan lakes including the the Swans also have been placed there and the name merely signifies their northern home across the Himalayas; cf. देवलोकोद्भव' and सुरप्रिय as epithets for a Swan. मराल — is a Swan according to वैजयन्ती and अभि. चिन्ता but with a grey- brown plumage as defined in कल्पद्रुकोश As for the age (one that is not beautiful, i.e., is not white) f makes it clear that the uri (the Whooper) when in the brown phase known by that name. It follows, therefore, that and a denote young Swans that have not yet assumed the white plumage of the adult. कल्पद्रुकोश supports this when it says, "अभव्यः स च हंसः स्यात्". frem having black or dark-brown eyes' should be the Mute Swan which has the darkest eyes of all. sf-whose food is milk' after the supposed power of a Swan to separate milk from water. ef also means 'clean or pure water and the name may well have been transferred back to it after the Sun had been pictured as a Swan in the blue sky. The Sun sucks up pure water out of the impure waters of the earth and this power of the heavenly Swan came later to be attributed to the earthly Swan. It is more probable, however, that the power of the bird (the Flamingo, and not the Curlew) of separating milk (very fine food) from the water came later to be transferred to the - see Art. 83, and Prof. C.R. Lanman's article, "The Milk-drinking Hansas of Sanskrit Poetry" in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 19, p. 151ff. (1898). वा (Pali वक्कगो) and सङ्कचित (वैजयन्ती) are after the long flexible neck of a Swan. afrit-refers to the permanent association of a Swan with the water and its swimming habit as against a Goose which is more of land than a water-bird. ft)-the largest', 'the migratory' and 'flying ' corresponds to 'g'. fer and (in in formation' respectively. -has red bill and feet according to a but the colour is bright red (अतिलहित) according to अभि. चिन्ता. It is particularly to be noted that धन्वन्तरि older than , makes no mention of red bill and feet.

1. fe-- 'soiled, tarnished, or of a dark colour.'

1. देवलोक is evidently the देवक्षेत्र or उत्तरकुरू the vaguely known or conjectur- ed areas including central Asia, Tibet, i.e. lying beyond and to the North of the Himalayas (ऐतरेय आरण्यक, 8.23), The description of Swans as coming from t is thus fairly correct though later they came to be placed with the Geese at, and in the neighbour- hood of, the Lake in the Himalayas. 430 Birds in Sanskrit Literature मल्लिक, मल्लिकारूय – white like the Jasmine flower. ar-patronymic from (i) , the mythological Swan-Mother of all Swans, Geese, etc., and (ii) ya, 'a king'. urdu son of a king and therefore next to him in status. The real significance of the name, despite its last place in the above verses, must be determined, as shown by क्षीरस्वामी on अमर, with reference to राजहंस as 'the king or best of Swans':- "धृतराष्ट्रे अमात्ये भवा धार्तराष्ट्राः, राजहंसेभ्यो न्यूनत्वात्" cf. also :- परस्मिन्न्यूनतामेति यथाऽमात्यः स्थिते नृपे quoted by पतञ्जलि, 5.3.57 धार्तराष्ट्र is thus the next best Swan after the राजहंस धन्वन्तरि defines राजहंस as beautiful and धार्तराष्ट्र as a white हंस. सारस सारं असति, ie, one that takes out the essence from the water-after the effe conventionally attributed to a Swan. It is in this etymo- logical sense that uses the phrase "fare:" for a Swan in a metaphor in बृहत्कथामञ्जरी, 9 359 and सारसी for राजहंसी at 9.145. सारस is again a Swan in रामायण 3. 19.8; cf the following :- यत्सारभूतं तदुपासितव्यं हंसो यथा क्षीरभिवाम्बुमध्यात् -सुभाषित, 173 878. माथ has used the term rather loosely for the Geese in शिशुपालवध, 12.44 where it may well refer to water-side birds in general. See also fear, 8.9 & 31, and Art. 62. fe and gf, adnouns for a g or Goose must refer to (i) a juvenile Swan or (ii) the Grey Lag Goose as the terms denote a tawny or brown colour (M. W.). If हरिण also means white (शुक्लवर्ण-शब्दकल्पद्रुम), हरिण हंस would also be an adult Swan. 6. Now looking back to the physical characters and habits of the three different Swans set out above, it should not be difficult to fix their identity in Sanskrit. The rare Chinese Swan, Cygnus davidii, is the proper of the later lexicons, a mere memory of the past which readily led to the transference of the name to the familiar Bar-head. , as Cygnus davidii, is not mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa or Mahabharata but the much later Harivamsa certainly mentions it at 3.41, 61-62 (quoted in para. 5 of Section B). The Whooper with its black (partly yellow) bill and feet is the and, celebrated alike in the Jataka, the Indian Epics, and European literature from the time of Homer. It is the wise and talking Swan described as 'f' or 'beloved of the gods', for did not w, the Creator, assume its beautiful and spotlessly white form as related in the Epics? Its far northern home is 2. The Mute Swan's bill is mainly reddish-horny and the feet dull- black so that the description of fe is fully applicable to it and the name afererger is descriptive of its spotless white plumage. It has a weak voice and is generally silent and this is the reason why it does not figure as talking Swan in Puranic stories. Nevertheless it finds its proper 1. The simplest way to interpret the name is to equate with 'King' and धार्तराष्ट्र as the king's son, and hence next in status to the King, ie. राजहंस Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 431 place in the चुल्ल हंस (533) and the महाहंस जातक (534) under the names of सुमुख and पाकहंस respectively. As सुमुख हंस it is the Army chief of the धतरट्ठ gerrar,, the king of the Swans, and the name refers to the black knob or 'berry' worn like an ornament at the base of its bill; compare the name for the Comb Duck after a similar but larger knob on the bill, and gg for (i) the Black Vulture with red face and ear-lappets, and (ii) the Common Coot with a white bill and shield against a dark body. 7. Juvenile Whoopers are clothed in a uniform grey-brown and take from eighteen months to two years to assume the white plumage of the adult. They are the सुवण्ण वण्ण हंस or सुवण्ण हंस (सुवर्ण हंस cf. जातरूप हंस below) of जातक, 534 where the queen dreams of one discoursing upon religion to the king and feels an irresistible longing to see it. The res and age type of Swans, both with their kings, come into the story at a later stage, and while both types are said to have the same body-colour (white) the young daughter of the king of the reger is also said to be of a golden colour- "पाकहंसरणो पन धीता सुवण्णवण्णा अहोसि", and she married to the was king.1 The re, therefore, is evidently the Mute Swan, the name being true of it in a double sense : (i) as indicating a change of colour from brown of the young to white of the adult through lapse of time or advanc- ing age (पाक, 'ripening'- "जरसा केशस्य शोक्त्यम्" मेदिनी; cf. पाकशुक्ला for chalk, i.e. lime in reference to the change undergone by dark coloured lime-stone on baking), and (ii) , 'a child or ignorant person' in view of the bird not having the full voice of the us, the Whooper. In the eager (533) the King of the Swans and his Army-chief, the gg g, are trapped and taken. to the king. The king holds a learned discourse on religion with the king but when the latter requests for his views as well, he excuses himself by saying that he is not so cultured or educated and is, there- fore, unable to discourse seriously in the presence of the great - अहं खलु महाराज नागराजारिव' अंतरं पतिवत्तुं न सक्कोमि न मे सो विनयो सिया- verse 75. Evidently is the Mute Swan with a weak voice. Thus grand ge are one and the same. 8. Parties of golden-plumaged Swans on a Himalayan lake mentioned as हिरण्यहंसावलि and हिरण्यहंसव्रज in कुमारसम्भव, 13. 27 and 39 are the same as gg of the war. This accords well with the statement of S. Baker that the great majority of Swans visiting India are young birds in brown plumage. 1. Does this statement not show that the ancients knew that the two species occa- sionally interbreed, a fact now acknowledged by orinthologists ?. 2, In the first sense both the Whooper and the Mute Swan would be rege. It is in this sense that (1.23,37) uses the name Trg for an adult Swan and it correctly 23 श्वेतहंस. renders 432 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 9. The Whooper and the White Ibis have an entirely white plumage and black bill and legs, and these form the slender basis of comparison between the two in several सुभाषित verses where the Ibis is always taunted for not being able to match the Swan either in its graceful movement or the power of separating out milk from water. In verse 229 at page 229 of the सुभाषित (1933 Edn.) a pure white body a pleasant voice (the boom- ing call of this Ibis is well known) and even a slow-stepping gait ( during fishing) are conceded to the Ibis, while in verse 230 it is despised for its animal diet and for not enjoying the honour of serving as a mount for god रह्मा. Nt may be added that the comparison is hardly fair to the Swan but it is allowable in अन्योक्ति which chiefly involves a satire upon a person of false perfections. 10. The large size and strength of पाकहंस are clearly stated in the Jataka story 534- "पाकहंसा महब्बला", the वेस्संतर जातक (547)- "पाकहंसा अतिबला" verse, 2106, and also in जातकमाला, 22.40"सज्जपवरथी बली" and we can now see that the हंसा: described as दलवीयपपन्न, बली हंस or simply as बलिन् in the following verses are no other than Swans:- बलवीर्योपपन्नानां रूपयौवनशालिनाम् । पष्ठस्तु पन्था हंसानां वैनतेयगतिः परा ॥ रामायण, 4.58 28. कथं नु हंसं बलिनं चक्राङ्गं दूरपातिनम् -- महाभारत, 8.41.23. सामिषं कुररं जघ्नु: बलिनो ये निरामिषा:– भागवत, 11.9.2. 11. The golden-coloured हंस caught by love-distracted Nala was no other than a young Whooper: स ददर्श ततो हंसाञ्जातरूपपरिष्कृतान्- महाभारत, 3.54-13,1 The bird promised to plead Nala's cause with Damayanti and was there- upon released. He flew with his party to her place and allowed himself to be caught by her and then performed his mission. The circular flight of the bird before it settled down is described in the verse below :- भ्रमणरयविकीर्णस्वर्णभासा खगेन क्वचन पतनयोग्यं देशमन्विष्यताधः । मुखविधुमदसीयं सेवितुं लम्बमानः शशिपरिधिरिवोध्वं मण्डलस्तेन तेने नैषधचरित, 2.108. The talking धार्तराष्ट्र birds with a beautiful voice engaged upon a mission similar to the above are again the Whooper Swans :-- 1. It is to be noted that a majority of Swans visiting India are young birds who have not yet attained the adult whire plumage. 2. Damayanti found the bird to be अद्भुतरूप ie, quite unlike the Geese she had been accustomed to see. It will be seen that जातरूप हंस is the same as सुबष्ण हंस of the जातक. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers ततो हंसान् धार्तराष्ट्रान् देवलोकनिवासिनः हरिवंश, 2.91,36. ते व नदन्तो मधुरं संस्कृतापूर्वभाषिणः - Ib. 2.92.3. आलपन्तं सुमधुरं धार्तराष्ट्रा जनेश्वर - Ib 2.92.5. सकान्तैधर्तिराष्ट्रश्च राजहंसः सुरप्रियैः - Ib.2.41.61. It may be added that the Swans have also been described as देवपक्षिण: (Ibid. 2.91 37 ) ; हंससत्तमाः, 'best of their kind (Ibid.2.91.39). • The occurrence of adult Swans in Kashmir is mentioned in the पद्मपुराण where मृणालधवला देवहंसाः and मृणालवर्चसो हंसा: are referred to-VI. उत्तर खंड, 176.70, and the Whoopers are placed on the Himalayan waters : हंसान्सुमधुराचापि तत्र शुश्राव पार्थिवः । 433 -महाभारत, 13.54,14, The normal change from the juvenile grey-brown to the all-white plumage of the adult धार्तराष्ट्र has been utilized, though not quite artistically, to glorify the purifying effects of a certain holy place on the Narmada in the Padma Purāna, II भूमिखंड, ch. 92 and the adult birds are described a little earlier as entirely white but with the bill and feet black : सितेतरैचञ्चुपादैरन्यतः शुक्लविग्रहाः - Ib. 90.43. भट्टनारायण has used धार्तराष्ट्रा with a double meaning in the following, as (i) the कौरवाः, the sons of घृतराष्ट्र and (ii) the Whooper Swans :- सत्यक्षा मधुरगिर: प्रसाधिताशा मदोद्धतारम्भाः । निपतन्ति धार्तराष्ट्राः कालवशान्मेदिनीपृष्ठे ॥ -वेणीसंहार, 1.6. Again the visiting (अभ्यागत) सुरप्रिय and चारुविशालपक्ष are Swans and हंसा: the Geese in the following : अभ्यागतंत्र्वारुविशालपक्ष सर (सुर ? ) प्रियंः पद्मरजोवकीर्णैः । महानदीनां पुलिनोपयातः क्रीडन्ति हंसाः सह चक्रवाकैः ।। - रामायण, 4.30.31. Nothing brings out the true significance of the name विशालपक्ष better than a comparison of the size and wing-expanse of a Swan with that of a Goose. The former is sixty inches long and has an expanse of ninety to nintyfive inches as against only thirtytwo and sixty inches respectively of the latter सुरप्रिय are the Swans, हंसा: the Geese, and चक्रवाक the Ruddy Sheldrakes, and the verse gives a picture of a great river with these birds, sporting on the sands (and presumably some on the waters as is their habit). The Swan of god वरुण is described in रामायण, 7.18.28 as "गङ्गातोय- विचारिन्" and this supports the above identification of विशालपक्ष 1. राजहंस here refers to the Mute Swan. 2. The expression कालवश refers to (i) the severity of winter which forces the Swans to move from the higher latitudes to the lower and warner one in India, and (ii) the adverse fate awaiting the कौरवाः 3. विशालपक्ष qualifying सुरप्रिय may also mean a large party' of Swans. 434 Birds in Sanskrit Literature In the following pen-picture the full moon in a clear blue and starry sky is compared with a single हंस or राजहंस on a large lake studded with lilies. Both are obviously Swans :- तमास्युत्सायं भगवाञ्चन्द्रो जृम्भति सो ऽम्बरे । कुमुदालडकूते हंसो यथा सरसि विस्तृते ॥ मत्स्यपुराण, 139.16. स्फुटकुमुदचितानां राजहंसस्थितानां मरकतमणिभासा वारिणा पूरितानाम् । श्रियमतिशयरूपां व्योमतोयाशयानां वहति विगतमेषं चन्द्रतारावकीर्णम् ॥ ऋतुसंहार, 3.21. The sun and the spiritually elevated man are compared with the wise Swan in the following :- हंसस्य चोवंगमने गतिर्भवति निचला । तत्त्वातत्त्वविवेकोऽस्ति जलदुग्धविभागवत् ।। -शिवपुराण, रुद्र सं. 2, Ch. 15, 10. The Mute Swans ( मल्लिकाब्य हंस) are known often to go about in pairs and they are greatly devoted to each other. These, therefore, should be the हंसमिथुन in the examples below. Swans in pairs add to the charm of a river :- हंसमिथुनैनंद्यः ( भान्ति) -सुभाषित, 188.1042 Swans resting on the sand-bank of a river were a favourite theme for the •painter's brush :- कार्या संकतलीनहंसमिथुना स्रोतोवहा मालिनी । -शाकुन्तल, 6.17. अश्वघोष was certainly aware of the affection between a pair of Swans and the following appeal to Prince Siddhartha to return to his wife based upon the behaviour of these birds is particularly forceful : हंसेन हंसीमिव विप्रयुक्तां त्यक्तां गजेनेव वने करेणुम् । आर्ता सनाथामपि नाथहीनां त्वातुं वधूमर्हसि दर्शनेन । -बुद्धचरित, 9.27. 1. Even with the reading "राजहंसाश्रितानां" in the first line it is incorrect to separate compound with the plural राजहंसा: as the comparison with the Moon postulates only one Swan. 2. The change of attitude in the rising and setting sun is readily noticeable but its movement or change of position near the zenith is not easily perceptible. It is then that the sun is at its brightest and hottest and its power of sucking up pure from impure ground water is at its best. The critical faculty of a person who has atrained perfect wisdom and balance of mind does not falter and he instinctively, as it were, and with certainty discriminates between good and evil. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers The last three items in the synonymies quoted in paragraph 5 above relate to मराल or अभव्य हंस as a grey-brown bird and as belonging to the हंस group which includes the three pure white Swans. Evidently, therefore, मराल signifies a juvenile Swan. मराल is often associated with god ब्रह्मा whose mount is said to be a हंस, the adult Whooper. In पद्मपुराण, 6, उत्तरखंड, 180,41ff ब्रह्मा assumes the form of a talking Swan ( मराल ) who was once pure white (पनवकर्पूरपाण्डुर) but underwent a sudden change of colour and is conteinptuously called a कलहंस because of its resemblance with the grey-brown of the Grey Lag ( कलहंस) : देवेश धूर्जट विद्धि मां मरालं स्वयंभुवः । कलहंस गतोऽसि त्वं मां विलध्य विहायसा । • 435 The Swan story, based on छान्दोग्य उपनिषद्, 4, related in स्कन्दपुराण, ब्रह्मखंड, सेतु- माहात्म्य, ch. 29.48ff would seem to confirm the above interpretation of मराल. Here certain sages have assumed the form of talking Swans which can only be Whoopers, and one of them jocularly addresses the leading bird as an inexperienced young Swan (मरालक) having a poor eye-sight :- एको हंसस्तु संबोध्य हंसमग्रेसरं तदा सोपहासमिदं प्राह..... ..... भो भो भल्लाक्ष भल्लाक्ष पुरोगच्छन् मरालक न पश्यसि किमन्धवत् ॥ The statement "हंसेषु तु मरालाः स्युः" seems to show that there are more than one kind of मराल and they are all Swans, and as the मराल of today is the pure white Swan of tomorrow the name came to be used for the adult bird as well, and this sense that is the nount of ब्रह्मा and called रथ-राजहंस (राजहंस as a रष or vehicle) in ibid. 16.31. ( Compare also ibid. 9, 37-38 "वर्णेनैव परं मरालघवलः– सुभाषित, 222, 31. ) The name मराल, having lost its identity, has been used indiscriminately by the poets for a ger (Swan) in general or even for a कलहंस B. GEESE 1. The Geese stand midway between the larger and heavier Swans at one. end and the smaller Ducks at the other. If the Swans are almost entirely aquatic and the Ducks chiefly so, the Geese may be said to be almost terrestrial in their habits. The legs being placed forward they walk easily. and well and have none of the waddling gait of the domestic Goose. They feed on grass and green crops, causing considerable damage to winter 1. Weer means 'bear-eyed', i.e. having weak eyes. It may also mean "having excellent eyes' used in an ironical sense. Birds in Sanskrit Literature rice and wheat in India. Occasionally, however, they also feed in shallow water. Except on shorter flights when they "bunch", they normally fly in V-formation or in long lines. Out of the breeding season, i.e., when they visit India in the cold weather, they are thoroughly gregarious and are always seen in small parties or flocks of several hundred birds at a time. Ordinarily they feed in the morning and in the evening and return for rest and sleep to sand-banks or sandy churs (islands) of large rivers, jheels or lakes with some bird on the watch and some always on the water. They differ from the Ducks in that the sexes are alike and the male assists the female in the duties of rearing the young. 2. They are commonly divided into two groups, the Grey and the Black Geese. Of these latter only the Red-breasted Goose is occasionally found in India at the present day, though it may have been more common a thousand years ago. It is black above, including the head and neck, and chestnut and black below. It is probably the कालहंस of बुद्धघोष in संयुत्त निकाय, 277. The Grey, Geese, on the other hand, are much more common in India and of these the most important and numerous are the Grey Lag and the Bar-headed Goose. As regards numbers, however, five Bar-heads. visit India to every Grey Lag and "taking upper India as a whole this (the Bar-head) enormously outnumbers all the other species of Geese put together," and "as for all the rest of the Geese, they are apparently so. rare that when one comes to consider numbers they are not worth speaking about" (Hume & Marshall in The Game Birds India, Burma and Ceylon). According to the same authorities the loud trumpet calls of a flight of Grey Lags high up in the air are very sonorous and musical while the notes of the Bar-heads are distinct from those of the other and are sharper, harder, less sonorous and more strident. The voices of the two are easy to differentiate. Moreover the two species never mingle companies, and always keep at some distance-flying, feeding, resting or swimming, always a little apart. The Bar-head is a lighter built, more graceful and more active bird than the other. It is also of a much lighter colour and has more white in its body plumage. The ancient Indians could certainly not have been unaware of these striking differences and must have named the two species differently. It is necessary to stress this point because according to a majority of the lexicons and mean one and the same thing although the two species are differentiated in Sanskrit literature and also in Hindi nomenclature. 436 3. Hindi names for the Grey Lag (much browner than the Bar-head) are करइंस (Skt. कलहंस ), मोगल (मधुगल), सोनाहंस (cf. Pali सुवण्ण हंस for a young Swan in brown plumage), राजहंस and धितराज (Skt. धृतराष्ट्र). The first name is after the bird's sonorous call-note and the second its brown colour. The last is. 1. बुद्धघोष enumerats six varieties of Ducks, Geese and Swans हरित तंब, खीर, काल, पाक after the colour of the plumage. The first two are for Ducks, the next two for Geese and the last two for Swans. and Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 437 and an adaptation from ard for the Whooper Swan. Both विश्वप्रकाश give धृतराष्ट्र for 'a kind of bird in close proximity with धार्तराष्ट्र :- धार्तराष्ट्र: कौरवेऽहौ कृष्णास्यावधि सितच्छदे हेमचन्द्र धृतराष्ट्र सुराशि स्यात् पक्षिक्षत्रियभेदयोः– विश्व Evidently, therefore, stands for a bird other than the Swan, and when we find the Grey Lag actually going under the name of fua its identity with your of the lexicons becomes fairly certain. other words the Grey Lag would seem to have been regarded as smaller edition of the young Whooper after the former's brown plumage and sonorous call. It is also called from its size. The Bar-head, on the other hand, is known in Hindi as करेइ हंस (fr. केरव हंसे under कैरव in शब्दकल्पद्रुम and शब्दार्थ- चिन्तामणि) बिरुवा हंस (fr. विराविन् after its harsher call?), and राजहंस. This last name is again by way of substitution for the original , viz., the Chinese Swan with deep red bill and orange legs the Bar-head is of a much lighter colour and a more graceful build than the Grey Lag and has yellow or orange bill and legs. The name are for a ge in reftarar and equated with ging and M. Williams can only refer to the Bar-head Goose with a conspicuously ur i.e. wr body. The adult Grey Lag (32"), heavier than the Bar-head, is, generally. speaking, a grey-brown bird with fleshy-pink bill and feet. Its breeding grounds are in Europe, Persia and Eastern and Northern Afghanistan. It is, therefore, very common in the North-West of India but working East it occurs in smaller numbers. A majority of those visiting India are, how- ever, the young of the year and these are far less marked underneath and are nearly white on the lower parts as compared with the adults. This fact is well worth noting as it not only explains the description ofge, during flight high up in the air, as white, e.g. in :- यासां व्रजद्भिः शितिकण्ठ ! मण्डितं । नभो विमानः कलहंसपाण्डुभिः ॥ भागवत, 4.3.12. but to a certain extent also the confusion of within the lexicons, The other Grey Geese like the Bean Goose, the Pink-footed and the White- fronted Goose that occur in very small numbers resemble the Grey Lag so very closely that they are very hard to tell apart in the field. The name and description of age would, therefore, apply to them all पक्षैराधूसरेहंसा: कलहंसा इति स्मृताः- हलायुध. The adjective आधूसर (आ समन्तात् धूसरवर्ण :) means 'mainly brown all over which is perfectly true of the Grey Geese except the Bar-head which is generally of a pale grey colour and has more of white in its plumage than the others. The name for the Grey Lag is particularly appropriate as, of all the Grey Geese, its call-note is the most sonorous " ध्वनिना विशिष्टो हंसः" शब्दकल्पद्रुम. It is therefore the फलकण्ठ हंस of M.W. and 438 Birds in Sanskrit Literature कलहंस proper of Sanskrit literature. In accordance with the old belief that all Swans & Geese coming from the North had their breeding grounds about the मानस lake the latter is expressly said to be the birth place of the कलहंस: उत्पत्तिसदनं कलहंसयसां मानसं नाम दिव्यं सरः -बालरामायण, 10.34. If कलहंस is understood in the wider sense of Grey Gecse as in the Maha- bhārata genealogy, the above statement would include the कादम्ब or Bar- head Geese as well. 5. The Bar-headed Goose (30") is pale grey above with two black bars on a white head, brownon the neck with a white streak on each side, brown on the flanks and pale grey and white below. The bill and feet are yellow or orange. “It is a far more graceful bird both on land and water, than the Gray, our only other common Goose, walking more easily and sitting higher in the water" (F.Finn). It breeds nearer India, on the lakes of Leh, Ladakh and Tibet, which accounts for its occurrence throughout North India in flocks of various sizes and these, when on a sand bank or during flight, have a pretty grey-white effect. From its occurrence and movement in flocks it is the कादम्ब हंस of the Epics and the Puránas ("कदम्बे समूहे भवः, सपचारित्वात्"-अभि. चिन्तामणि) and राजहंस of classical literature. The term हंस in its original sense means a Swan but the Geese also because of their size, are ordinarily designated by that name, and, it is only when there is reason to specify a particular variety, e.g., from the point of voice colour or numbers, that the distinctive names, कलहंस and कादम्ब are used. Thus the नीलपृष्ठ हंस of the Rgveda is probably the Bar- head with its grey-brown upper parts which would certainly appear fairly dark as compared with the bright white of an adult Swan : सस्वचिद्धि तन्वः शुम्भमाना आ हंसासो नीलपृष्ठा अपप्तन् । —RV 7.59.7. Here the expression नीलपृष्ठ should have the same sense as in RV 3.7.3 where it is descriptive of the mantle of smoke of a grey-brown colour through which the fire is shooting forth. In the above verse the wind gods, मस्तः, are supposed to have bedecked themselves in secret and seated round the soma offering like a flock of Bar-head Geese (ornamented with orange- yellow bills and feet, black bars on their white heads, white stripes on their grey neck, etc.) on the sands, and like finely dressed young men sitting round a vedic sacrifice. It is perhaps after this Vedic name of नीलपृष्ठ हंस for the later कादम्ब हंस that मल्लिनाथ on रघुवंश 13.55 and शङ्कर on हर्षचरित, p. 12, have explained कादम्ब as नीलहस and कृष्णहंस respectively. The author of नैषधचरित also has pictured कादम्ब as a dark bird an embodiment of कलि in the garden of नल which, from a profusion of white flowers, competed in beauty with the full moon. The कादम्ब is a dark spot in the garden comparable with the छन in the moon rather hard on the beautiful Goose which most certainly adds to the charm of the inevitable lotus pool in a garden (See नैषध चरित, 17.220). Swans, Geest, Ducks and Mergansers 439 6. In the following examples the occurrence of the Bar-heads in flocks is clearly indicated :- हंसकादम्ब: सडकुलं (तटाकम् ) - रामायण, 3.11.6. कादम्बसारसकुलाकुलतीरदेशा:- ऋतुसंहार, 3.8. कादम्बकदम्बकैर्युतम्– bank of a river in स्कन्दपुराण, 2.8. ch. 9. कादम्बकदम्बकैरासेवितं (पम्पासरः ) कादम्बरी (पूर्वभाग), p. 44. कादम्बकदम्बकास्तडागा:- हरिविलास 3. 11 राजहंसकुलाकुला (गङ्गा) - स्कन्दपुराण, काशीखण्ड, 29.70 राजहंससमूह - on the Himalayas, महाभारत, 12.327.6. 7. The original distinction between the Grey Lag Goose and the Bar- headed Goose as कलहंस and कादम्ब respectively is fully borne out by the following evidence: हलायुध for instance names both of them separately :- पक्षैराधूसरैर्हंसाः कलहंसा इति स्मृताः कारण्डवकादम्बककराद्याः पक्षिजातयो ज्ञेयाः पालकाप्य mentions महाहंस (Swan), कलहंस and कादम्ब as different in हस्त्यायुर्वेद, ch. 13, while the following from भागवत and लोलिम्बराज distinguish between राजहंस (Bar-head) and कलहंस :- मोदमदमुदित राजहंसकलहंसजलकुक्कुटकारण्डव चक्रवाकादिभिः . उपकूजितेषु -भागवत, 5.17.13. श्रमनुत्सु सरःसु राजहंसाः कलहंसाच मनोरमा रमन्ते -हरिविलास, 3.9. In his discription of शरद् ऋतु (autumn) राजमेबर refers to कादम्ब, कलहंस and other birds arriving in the country in large numbers : कादम्बकारण्डव चक्रवाकससारसको चकुलानुयाता । उपानयन्ती कलहंसयूथमगस्त्यदृष्ट्या पुनती पयांसि ।। काव्यमीमांसा, Ch. 18 ( Baroda Edn. p. 101 ) Simlarly कलहंस and कादम्ब are mentioned separately in a single passage at pages 45, 144 and 145, of Kale's edition of कादम्बरी ( पूर्वभाग). The passage below from the हरिवंश, again, makes the position very clear. It names धार्तराष्ट्र (the Whooper), राजहंस (the Mute Swan), कादम्ब, कलहंस and other birds occurring on the Himalayan lakes:- सकान्तं धर्तिराष्ट्र व राजहंसेः सुरप्रियः । कादम्बैश्चक्रवार्कंश्च सारसैः कुररैरपि ॥ कलहंसोपगीतानि सारिकाभिरुतानि च - 3.41.61-62 The मदनविनोदनिषण्टु, on the other hand, defines कादम्ब as a kind of कलहंस with yellow legs and bill :440 Birds in Sanskrit Literature कलहंसस्तु पीतः (पदाननः) कादम्ब उच्यते This statement goes to show that, applying probably a too literal and narrow interpretation to the genealogy of the Grey Geese from get quoted in the opening paragraph in Section A of this Article, both the Geese have been regarded as ge. Nevertheless it is clear that the Grey- Lag with fleshy-pink bill and feet is just a g but not a in which these parts are yellow. The age of a whitish colour and with yellow bill and legs in the following verse is no other than the as defined in मदनविनोदनिघण्टु :- सर्वाङ्गपाण्डुरै चिच्याच कनकत्विषा । हरिद्रापिञ्जरैः पादै राजहंसो विराजते ॥ मानसोल्लास, 2.175. There is thus hardly any doubt that is the Bar-head and the Grey Lag Goose and, it may be noted, that these names are so used in the 4, महाभारत, हरिवंश, etc. But as the centre of Sanskrit culture moved eastwards people and poets rarely saw a Swan, and since the Bar-head with its grey and white plumage, orange-yellow bill and legs and slimmer and smarter body-lines stood out prominently amongst the Grey Geese including the Grey Lag they readily transferred the name g it. It also became the conventional White Goose, the fear or of the classical poets in comparison with the darker and heavier Grey Lag exactly as the light-grey Ring Dove is the amongst the Doves. None of the two is pure white but each is the lightest coloured member within its own group; cf:- पूर्वेण स्पर्द्धमानोऽयं उत्तरो लभते सितः–पतञ्जलि महाभाष्य, 5.3.57. काकस्य कार्य्यात् धवल: प्रासाद:- Proverb i.e., 'even a grey building looks white as compared with the Crow perched upon it'. And once the Bar-head came to be known as , the name

• lost its specific character with some of the poets and became synony-

mous with for the Grey Lag Goose. This change must naturally have come about before a was written. At the same time the increasing artificiality of classical poetry aided by a freer exercise of poetic license and the stress of metre led to a further confusion resulting in the oblitera- tion of the originally sharp distinctions. This is reflected in the not always true equations like the following and its permutations elsewhere:- राजहंसस्तु कादम्बे कलहंसे नृपोत्तमे–हेमचन्द्र हेमचन्द्र follows अमर in his definitions of राजहंस and कलहंस in अभि. चिन्तामणि but falls into line with far in the artering, and afrit follows suit. In the same way the names and are for a young Swan came to be applied 1. राजहसो नृपश्रेष्ठे कादम्बकलहंसयोः– विश्वप्रकाश implies a difference between the two. Nevertheless other synonymies for and in the same lexicon obliterate the difference. The type of King, us is described in o o. 68.24-26. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 441 to the Grey Lag Goose and this is recognized by the fin the following:- कलहंसस्तु कादम्बः कलनादो मरालकः । and शब्दकल्पद्रुम rendering मरालक as कलहंस gives the following derivation : मराल इव प्रतिकृतिरिति, मराल + कन् i.e., the Grey Lag is a because it resembles a (in the colour of its body-plumage). This agrees with the statement, "gay gere: in the अभि चिन्तामणि which shows that more than one bird went by the name of मराल. We have already seen in Section A that a young Swan in grey-brown plumage is the proper and now we see that the name has been applied to the Grey Lag as well. 7. It is perhaps clear by now that if one wants to know with a fair degree of certainty the particular kind of Swan or Goose meant na given context one cannot always go by the dictionary meanings of the names used or the published commentaries and translations but must try to examine. the overall context in each case roughly with reference to the period of the composition (Vedic, epic or classical), the geographical setting, the picture an author wants to present and the object he has in view. This is however. easier said than done, for many an instance in the Puranas and classics would be found to be extremely vague and it is perhaps true say that poets, with of course some exceptions, have striven in their compostions more after general effect and word symphony than faithful- ness to Nature. At the same time it cannot be denied that there is a considerable volume of high class poetry which is quite as close to Nature as poetry can be, and the above considerations should help if the alter- native meanings illustrated below are borne in mind :- (i) ge and ge, both used for Swans in the older sense, the latter for the more graceful Mute Swan for preference: सुप्तकहंस कुमुदैरुपेतं महाह्रदस्थं सलिलं विभाति । धनविमुक्त निशिपूर्णचन्द्रं तारागणाकीर्णमिवान्तरिक्षम् ॥– रामा. 4.30,48. गाङ्गमम्बु सितमम्बुयामुनं कज्जलाभमुभयव मज्जतः । राजहंस तव सैव शुभ्रता चीयते न च न चापचीयते" ॥–काव्यप्रकाश, 10.174. राजहंसमिथुन described later as हंसमिथुन in कुन्दमाला, Act 4 are a pair of tame (wing-clipped?) Mute Swans on an artificial lake in the palace grounds. (ii) ge for (a) any of the common Geese in the Epics, and (b) all members of the Goose family (Anatidae) in far and a literature: (a) महानदीनां पुलिनोपयातः क्रीडन्ति हंसाः सहचक्रवाकैः । - रामायण, 4.30.31. क्रौञ्चहससमाकीर्णा शरत्प्रमुदिताऽभवत्-म. भा. 3.183.10. 442 Birds in Sanskrit Literature मङ्गल्यार्थप्रदः शब्दरत्ववर्तन्त सर्वशः । सारसा: शतपत्राच हंसाक्ष मधुसूदनम् ॥ म. भा. 5.83.25. (b) See मनुस्मृति, 5.12, याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति, 1.172, etc. singular or plural signifies all Swans, prohibited as food. For the separate everywhere see Section C, para, 7 & 8. where हंस in the Geese and Ducks mention of चक्रवाक (iii) राजहंस for (a) the Chinese Swan very occasionally, and (b) mostly the Bar-head Goose which is more graceful on land and water than the Grey Lag Goose : (a) See passage from हरिवंश, 3.41.61-62 quoted in para 7 above. (b) पदर्गात शिक्षमाणानीव कामिनीनां पश्चात्परिभ्रमन्ति राजहंसमिथुनानि-मृच्छकटिक, 4.28. वामाङ्गनासुगतिनिजितराजहंसी--- बिल्हण काव्य, 40. सा राजहंसैरिव संनताङ्गी गतेषु लीलाश्चितविक्रमेपु—–कुमारसंभव, 1.34. येऽपि त्वद्गमनानुकारिगतयस्ते राजहंसा गताः - सुवृत्ततिलक, 2.39 (काव्यमाला, pt. 2). (iv) मराल for (a ) a young Swan; (b) an adult Swan; and (c) the Grey Lag Goose, as a Swan, with legs placed farther back, is very awkward Con the land: (a) See Section A. para. 11. (b) यस्याच्छमानसपथे विजिहीर्षयेव याता विमानपदवीं कति नो मरालाः –श्रीकण्ठचरित, 16.30. Note-these मराल birds are called रच-राजहंस in the next verse, and Swans serving as vehicles of the gods are described as embrac- ing the sky with the wide expanse of their wings in किरातार्जुनीय, 18.19. (c) निजतीरशेखरमरालकुलगतितस्करीः (त्रिदिवसुन्दर्य:) — श्रीकण्ठचरित, 9.37. The "केलिमराल यूथ" in Ibid. 11.37 are a party of tame Grey Lag Geese, while the wording of the following line clearly shows that the poet is referring to the same Geese (viz., कलहंसाः) as मराल on the Ganges: संमिलद्भिर्मरालः सा कलं कूजद्भिरुन्मदः कुमारसंभव, 10.33. (v) कादम्ब is the Bar-head Goose in the Epics and Puránas but the name has been very sparingly used in classical literature as it was replaced by राजहंस and to a certain extent by the euphonious कलहंस. For examples see para. 6 and (viii) below. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers (a) (vi) कलहंस for (a) the Grey Lag and (b) the Bar-head: विमलस्फाटिकाभानि पाण्डुरच्छदनद्विजः । कलहंसैरुपेतानि सारसाभिरुतानि च । - म.भा. 3.158,72. कलहंसगणैर्जुष्टामृषिकिन्नरसेविताम् (महागङ्गाम् ) – Ibid. 3.159,99 ततः स कूजत्कलहंसमेखलां सपाकसस्याहितपाण्डुतागुणाम् । -किरातार्जुनीय, 4.1. 443 See also para. 6. (b) The pale grey Bar-heads, having a white head and a good bit of white in the neck, and not the brown grey Lags, assimilate with white lotuses where their existence is known only from their conversational notes : सितारविन्देषु चयंषु लीनाः संसक्तफेनेषु च सकतेषु । कुन्दावदाताः कलहंसमालाः प्रतीयिरे श्रोवसुखनिनादः ॥ -भट्टिकाव्य, 2.18. भवनकलहंसमालाभिर्धवलिताङ्गण-कादम्बरी, 145. The Moon moving through dark clouds looks like a Bar-head floating in the midest of the Dark waves of the Jamna: सितकरः कलहंस इवाभितस्तरति संवलितो यमुनोमिभिः । — क्षेमेन्द्र in सुवृत्ततिलक, 1.27. (vii) सितखग, धवलविहग, etc., literally a Swan, have often been used for the Bar-head Geese. "कूलसितविहग" and "कूलधवलविहग" (श्रीकण्ठ चरित, 9.16 & 38 ) on the banks of the Mansarovara Lake can only be the Bar-heads which breed in the neighbouring territory and are plentiful there. Poet माघ, who knew full well that सितविहंग had come to mean the Bar-head, has deliberately used the descriptive "afafaarfag (the extremely white bird) for a Swan : स्मितसरोरुहनेवसरोजलाम् अतिसिताङ्गविहङ्गलसद्दिवम् । अकलयन्मुदितामिव सर्वतः स शरदं शरदन्तुरदिङमुखाम् ।। - 6.54. (viii) The compound "हंसकारण्डव" or हंस and कारण्डव named separately in the same verse refer to a mixed assemblage of Geese, Ducks and Coots. The phrase हंसकारण्डवाकीर्ण is the commonest epithet for rivers, lakes and tanks where some of these birds are often present, and the picture is some- times made richer by naming other common water-side birds along with हंस and कारण्डव कादम्बैचक्रवाकैच कुररैजलकुक्कुटं: । कारण्डवैः प्लावैहंसवं कर्मद्गुभिरेव च ।। – म.भा. 3.158.56 कारण्डैः साससेहंसँवंञ्जुलैर्जलकुक्कुटैः । चक्रवाकंस्तथा चान्यैः शकुनै रुपनादितान् ॥– रामायण, 4.13.8. 1. The first line refers to white birds like white Ibises, Egrets, etc. and not to Swans as it would amount to circumlocution and poetic pedantry which is quite foreign to Epic poetry. The कादम्ब Geese are mentioned a little earlier in the same chapter verse 56. 444 Birds in Sanskrit Literature कादम्बकारण्डवहंसजुष्टाः पद्माकुलाः पुष्करिणीरपश्यन् । मानसं हंसकारण्डवाकुलम् -- पद्मपुराण, सृष्टिखंड, 43.178, (ix) In अन्योक्ति poetry हंस, राजहंस, हंसकुलावतंस, मराल, राजमराल and मरालकुलनायक are all used for a Swan as representing the highest standard of personal grace, dignity and ethical behaviour for an honourable person. 8. A pilgrimage to the मानस Lake, south or south-east of the कैलास range in the inner Himalayas, has been dear to the religious-minded and enterprising Indians from very ancient times and they thus became familiar not only with the breeding grounds of myriads of Bar-headed Geese and Cranes but also the valley or valleys by which they crossed the Himalayas to and back from India. This association of the or राजहंस with the great Lake and the कोचर valley recurs quite often in Sanskrit literature. Incidentally, it also helps to solve the equation, "सर:काकस्तु हंस: स्यात्" -विकाण्ड- शेष, where "सर" stands for "मानसर" and "काक" either for a bird in general or a Crow. The reference is thus to the Bar-head as the bird of the मानस Lake or to its being as common a bird there as the Crow is elsewhere. A few relevant references to राजहंस for the Bar-head are given below : (i) हंसद्वारं भृगुपतियशोवर्त्म यत, क्रौञ्चरन्ध्रम् । (ii) -म.भा. 3.164.5. अद्यापि छिद्रं तत्पार्थ क्रोश्वस्य परिवर्तते । येन हंसाच क्रौञ्चाश्च मानसाय प्रयान्ति च ॥ - स्कन्दपुराण, कौमारिकाखण्ड, 33.181. (iii) सम्पत्स्यन्ते नभसि भवतो राजहंसाः सहायाः । (iv) मेघश्यामा दिशो दृष्ट्वा मानसोत्सुकचेतसाम् । कूजितं राजहंसानां नेदं नूपुरशिञ्जितम् || -मेषदूत, 11. -विक्रमोर्वशीय, 4.14. (v) यस्य सानुमतां पृष्ठे सरः काञ्चनपङ्कजम् । कारण्डवसमाकीर्णं राजहंसोपशोभितम् ।। -मेघदूत, 59.

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वामन पुराण, 85.16.

(vi) आहारो बिसपल्लवा: पुलिनभूर्तीलाविहारास्पदं रेवावारिणि राजहंसशिशवस्तिष्ठन्ति धन्याः सुखम् ॥ -नलचम्पू, 5.71. The first four examples refer to the last homeward flights of the Bar-heads late in spring or in early summer when a few spring-showers are common. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 445 This has been poctically associated with the beginning of the rainy season, unless the Geese stayed on much longer or the rains set in much earlier some two thousand years ago than they do now. The convention has been followed by all poets as कविसम्प्रदाय or poetic fiction. 9. The ancients also knew from their visits to the northern Himalayas that the Geese, like almost all members of the family, lose their wing- quills after the breeding season and are helpless for some time. This is clear from the following verse where the female (who is now busy attending to her young ) is said to be happy in the thought that her mate must be feeding amongst the lilies somewhere, little knowing that the poor fellow •deprived of his power of flight, is almost starving in the muddy reeds : हंसी वेत्ति परागपिञ्जरतनुः कुत्रापि पद्माकरे प्रेयान्मे बिसकन्दलीकिसलयं भुङ ङ्क्ते ह्ययं निर्वृतः । नो जानाति तपस्विनी यदनिशं जम्बालमालोडयन् शैवालाङ्करमप्यसौ न लभते हंसो विशीर्णच्छदः ।। -सुभाषित, 222.34. 10. Some additional appreciative references to the Geese and a couple of examples of striking poetic imagery showing in what high regard they have been held in India may now be given: (i) The sonorous 'honking' calls of the Grey Lag high up in the sky, or their conversational notes when feeding in the fields have been greatly admired: कर्षन् नितान्तमधुरान् कलहंसनादान् कुन्दमाला, 2.4. या पुरा कलहंसानां कलेन कलभाषिणी-- रामायण, 4.30,9. श्रोत्रं हंसस्वनोऽयं सुखयति दयिता नूपुरह्लादकारी – प्रियदर्शिका, 1.15. (ii) The distant 'gaggle' of long lines of the Bar-head Geese, flying high in different directions and ach flock answering the call of another, in the cloud-free autumnal sky has inspired a truly picturesque image. 'The goddesses presiding over the Cardinal Points are, as it were, carrying ona lively conversation accross the skies': सितच्छदानामपदिश्य धावतां रुतैरमीषां ग्रथिताः पतव्रिणाम् । प्रकुर्वते वारिदरोधनिगंता: परस्परालापमिवामला दिशः ॥ -किरातार्जुनीयं, 4.30. (iii) Flights of Geese in lines or V-formation have served as excellent similes. Thus arrows feathered with the brown wing-quills of Eagles resemble Grey Lags on the wing: रुक्मपुङखा व्यराजन्त हंसा: श्रेणीकृता इव - म.भा. 6.137.7. Warriors ( dressed in light grey ) marching in single file to battle likened to a flight of the Bar-heads: शरद ध्रप्रतीकाशा हंसावलिरिवाम्बरे - रामायण, 6.69.36. 446 Birds in Sanskrit Literature A necklace of large white pearls with a deep blue sapphire in the centre, lying on the breast in a V-shape: कण्ठिका हंसमालेव व्योम्नि दात्यूह मध्यगा - जैन आदिपुराण, 5.6. Comparing Geese, returning in autumn to a hazardous life in their old haunts, with ascetics, half-way through their spiritual evolution and, therefore, beset with difficulties, the following verse strikes a sympathetic but melancholy note as the dear birds would now often have to face heartless bow-men or the secretly laid trap-nets of prowling fowlers: पूर्व व्यक्तः सरोम्भोभिः हंसा योगं पुनर्ययुः । क्लेशैः कुयोगिनोऽशेषैरन्तरायहता इव ॥ विष्णु पुराण, 5.10.9. All arts and sciences, acquired in her previous births, return to Parvati like Geese descending in quick succession on the old familiar sands of the Ganges: तां हंसमालाः शरदीव गङ्गा महौषधि नक्तमिवात्मभासः । स्थिरोपदेशामुपदेशकाले प्रपेदिरे प्राक्तनजन्मविद्याः ॥ -- कु.सं. 1.30. (iv) Kalidása compares the clear (supposed to be of a dark colour according to poetic convention) and the slightly turbid (poetically white) waters of the Jamna and the Ganges at their confluence with lines of the Bar-head (कादम्ब ) and Swans swimming as it were side by side: क्वचित्खगानां प्रियमानसानां कादम्बसंसर्गवतीव पंक्तिः । - रघुवंश, 13.55. Again, neck-laces of large ga gems (the cat's eye variety of beryl) resting on the breasts of the tipsy ladies of the harem of Rāvana have been compared with a row of कादम्ब Geese: अपरासां च वैडूर्या: कादम्बा इव पक्षिण:- रामायण, 5.9.49. It is suggested that the original basis of comparison for the dignified gait of a shapely young lady of noble birth was the gentle gliding move- ment of the beautiful Mute Swan, the मनोरम राजहंस of धन्वन्तरि carrying its long neck in a graceful curve on the water, but with the shifting of the centre of Indo-Aryan culture from the Punjab to the मध्यदेश the Geese replaced the Swan in this as in other respects. The quotation from the रघुवंश given below would seem to support the idea. The Grey Lag, being a larger and heavier bird than the slimmer and more beautiful Bar-head, 1. दात्यूह, Black Ibis. 2. बैहूर्य is विडा लेक्षण in शिशुपालवध 3.45. It is defined as a gem resembling the eye of a cat or civat and having a moveable white line in it. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 447 has naturally a less graceful gait on land than the latter, and the expressions कलहंसगामिनी and मरालगमना should properly describe the rather heavy though dignified step of the "श्रोणीभारमरातसा" or "श्रोणीभारादलसगमना" type of beauty cast in an ampler mould: घनजघनस्तनभारभरे दरमन्चरचरणविहारम् । मुखरितमणिमञ्जीरमुपैहि विधेहि मरालविकारम् । गीतगोविंद, 11.20.2 अलसपदमनोरमं प्रकृत्या जितकलहंसवधूगतिप्रयातम् । स्थितमुरुजघनस्थलातिभाराद् उदितपरिश्रमजिह्मितेक्ष्णं वा ।। - किरातार्जुनीय, 10.60. गतैः सहावः कलहंसविक्रमं कलवभार: पुलिनं नितम्बिभिः । - Ibid. 8.29. Comparisons with the राजहंस (Bar-head on the ground or Swan on the water) on the other hand suggest a slim and elegant figure of the 'सकलतनुसुवेशा'-तन्वी type of womanhood. In the first quotation below Kālidāsa compares the graceful movement of the young इन्दुमती at the स्वयंबर, from one royal suitor to another, with a Swan's on the water and in the second her heavier gait, when she had grown into a stately looking queen with that of a Grey Lag : समीरणोत्थेव तरङ्गलेखा पद्मान्तरं मानसराजहंसीम्। रघु. 6.26. कलमन्यभृतासु भाषितं कलहंसीषु मदालसं गतम् | Ibid. 8.29. Finally, Swans and Geese had an important place in the arts of ancient India, for we find the Goose motif in the printing industry, wood- carving, and metal work. Their soft feathers were used to stuff quilts and cushions for the rich, and their quills for making royal umbrellas or canopies for thrones. C. DUCKS Ducks, as a rule, are smaller and much more aquatic than the Geese, and with legs placed less forward they cannot walk as well. Altogether about thirty different species of Duck including four members of the Subfamily, Merginae (characterised by a tapering, narrow and sub-cylindrical bill quite unlike the broad, flat bill of the Ducks proper) 1. Cf. वधूदुकूलं कलहंसलक्षणम् कु० सं० 5.67. शालकाष्ठेन घटितो हंसमालोपशोभितः । चरणाप्रे हंसरूपं पुत्रिकास्त्वेकविंशतिः । हंससिहासनं नाम सर्वानिष्टविनाशनम् ॥ युक्तिकल्पतरु, p. 52. हंसतूलमयी शय्या स्कन्द पु० अरुणाचल मा० उ. बं. 19.9. छवं राशः प्रशस्यते। हंसपक्षैविरचित-अग्नि पु०, 245, 1-2. Swan-shaped receptacle of gold in नैषधचरित, 6.72. 448 Birds in Sanskrit Literature. Assam. Some occur in India but of these only eight are permanent residents and the others are with us for a period of about six months-Sept.-Oct. to April. Of these latter again some seven or eight species are rare and a few are only casual visitors or are found in the extreme Eastern part species confine themselves exclusively to tanks and lakes while others prefer rivers lakes. A rough list of these two groups is appended at the end of this section which would help in forming some idea of the sort of birds that are referred to when the stock phrase great is used to describe Lake or River scenery. Some Ducks possess a multi- coloured bright wing-patch, called a 'speculum' which may be rendered as पक्ष-ज्योति in Sanskrit. Ducks as a group go by क्षुद्रहंस or हंसक (Pali चुल्ल हंस) but quite a number of them have also specific names in Sanskrit and these are considered below.. (1) The Comb-Duck, Nukhta, or 'the Black-backed Goose' of Jerdon, is 30 inches long and as large as the Bar-head Goose. It is black above and white below with a white head and neck spotted with black but the most characteristic feature of this Duck is a black, fleshy knob on the base of the bill of the male which becomes greatly swollen during the breeding season and "shrinks up almost to nothing" in winter. This Duck is met within family parties of four to ten birds but flocks of 25 or 30 are also seen. They are strong and rapid fliers, walk and dive well and freely perch on the thicker branches of trees. Their voice is like that of the Goose and when an intruder approaches the nest they utter loud trumpet calls. It occurs in the Punjab but is at present of rare occurrence west of the Sutlej and is found throughout the rest of India except the North and West Sind. The Hindi name for it is e, i.e. 'having the nose cut off' in refer- ence to the great reduction in size of the comb or knob during the non- breeding season, and the name is just a translation of arenfar, the first name in the synonymy-"नासाच्छिन्ना तु पूर्णिका" — विकाण्डशेष, Here the second name, gfire, clearly implies the fuller phase of the comb during the breeding season (cf. a and gre for a young and full-grown bull respectively). The breeding period lasts from June to September and is therefore perfectly correct of poet wryf to mention the bird by the name of gfer in his description of a mid-day scene at the height of the summer season: तीराश्मन्तकशिम्बिचुम्बनमुखा धावन्त्यपः पूर्णिकाः -मालतीमाधव, 9.7. चरक calls it नन्दीमुखी and भावप्रकाश leaves no doubt whatever about the name and its owner: स्थूला कठोरा वृत्ता च यस्याश्चश्व परिस्थिता । गुटिका जम्बुसदृशी ज्ञेया नन्दीमुखीति सा ॥ 449 Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers afe., explaining the Prakrit vife, gives a cryptic and apparently nonsensical definition:- नन्दिमुख–उचङ्गलप्रमाणशरीरके पक्षिविशेषे i.c., a particular bird with a body measuring only two fingures. The an also repeats the above. Evidently an earlier and fuller statement regarding the nature of the bird's bill has been inexpertly condensed by a person who did not know the bird, and the mutilated. version has been thoughtlessly repeated by later lexicographers. Now if we bend our middle finger and place its tip on the back of the fore- finger we have quite an accurate shape of the bill of this Duck-the curved middle-finger representing the swollen knob. This is the idea behind the absurd descrption "द्वघङ्ग लप्रमाणशरीरके". gg has a pair of surgical forceps, named , shaped after the bird's bill and consisting of an upper jaw the fore-end of which rests flat upon the straight lower jaw, forming the gripping part of the instru- ment, while the remaining part of the upper jaw turns up and comes down in a loop (like the shape of the bent middlefinger) near the pin holding the two together. Such a pair of forceps was very useful in extracting or pulling out arrowheads and other missiles from the body. of a warrior which were flat or thin at the lower but thicker at the upper and exposed end. The loop of the forceps would accommodate the thicker part and the tip would grip fast the thinner part and help pulling it out. old 2. The White-winged Wood Duck (32") has a spotted white head and neck, a white wing-patch and a bluish-grey speculum. It is known as ager (fr. fra shining), a purely Sanskrit name, in Assam. The eyes of s are blood-red and the name mga corresponding to t for a kind of g in te should belong to it. The Geese have brown or dark brown eyes and no Ducks have such blood-red eyes except the Goosander which, however, is not looked upon as a gas it does not possess the typical flat bill of one and is entirely carnivorous. It therefore goes by the name of afger (see Nos. 24-25 below). The White- winged Wood Duck, comparable in size to a Goose, is therefore a or देवहंस. 3. The Pink-headed Duck (23") is resident throughout North India and is known as afer in Hindi corresponding to mentioned by in the list of water-birds. It shares this name with some of the Pochards as varieties of g while the Indian Sarus also claims the term as a descriptive epithet to distinguish it from other Cranes (arce). 1. If the name is in contra-distinction to aferer for the White-eyed Pochard, it may well be for the Pochard or Red-crested Pochard both having reddish-brown or reddish- yellow eyes and belonging to the same genus. The Cotton Teal also has crimson-red eyes but it is too small a bird in comparison with others. Birds in Sanskrit Literature 4. The Cotton Teal (13") is the smallest Indian Duck which nests in hollows or holes in trees near water. It is it or d in Hindi, the same as Sansk. w for a kind of Duck in M. Williams, These names are clearly after the bird's voice. M. Williams gives also for a kind of Goose (i.e., g in the wider sense) and the name, derived from a little bit', clearly implies a little or tiny Duck (cf. for the Red Turtle Dove, the smallest of all Doves-Art. 53). The brown upper parts in the male are glossed with metallic green or purple and the names तृणहंस of the महाहंस जातक (534) and हरित हंस of बुद्धघोष on संयुत्त निकाय, 277 would again seem to point to it. r means 'green grass' and is also indicative of the minute size of a thing, and fer is the 'green colour', and both the names are fully descriptive of this tiny 'goslet'. The Cotton Teal, the commonest of Indian Ducks, frequenting even ponds and ditches, is thus the घर्धरक, काणूक, तृण, or हरित-हंस. 5 & 6. The Whistling Teal occurs in two forms, the Lesser (17") and the Large (20"). The former is resident throughout India and the latter chiefly in Bengal and sparsely in North India. Both frequent swamps, lakes and tanks, ard being good walkers, graze on the land as well. They are very tame and confiding birds and can be easily domesticated. The Common Whistling Teal, plentiful all over, is known as feet in Hindi and as सरल, शरैल, सरालि, and हराति in Bengal and Assam. All these names are local variants from Sansk. for wet but most Sanskrit lexicons have confused the last two names (शरालि, शराली) with शरारि or शरारी which are specific for the Skimmer, on the strength of the rule, "" though the two are quite different. The following verse from ager with alternative readings of wafe and rufe in the second line has been consi- dered in Art. 70: 450 प्रफुल्लनीलोत्पलशोभितानि शरालिकादम्बविघट्टितानि 4.9. and as the tank in question is said to be covered with lotuses and the water-weed, the probability is in favour of wafar as the correct read- ing, for the Whistling Teal would readily take to such a tank but not the Skimmer. The Large whistling Teal bears a good deal of resemblance to the Lesser and naturally shares the name of with it. Brown above and chestnut below, they are the तंबहंसा (ताम्र red) of बुद्धघोष (ibid.), मनोसिला हंसा (मन: fशल mineral red-arsenic) of महाहंस जातक, अलूने (अरुण reddish) of the Fifth Pillar Edict of Asoka, and रविहंसा (रविसंशक ताम्रम् and therefore the same as तंबहंसा) of बेस्संतर जातक, verse 2107. 7 & 8. The Sheldrake(24") and the Ruddy Sheldrake or the Brahminy Duck (26") are closely related and though they have been separated under two different genera by S. Baker in F.B. I., other authorities keep them together as sub-species of a common genus. The Indians too have regarded them as closely allied birds. The two are respectively known as 'Safed Surkhab' and 'Surkhab' in Persian or Hindustani, and 3 or in Sanskrit. The names ,, and are after the bird's and Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 'a-oung' call resembling the sound of a badly greased wheel mounted on a wooden axle (चक्र इव वाक् शब्दोऽस्य; cf. रयाङ्गतुल्याह्वयन 'calling like a wheel' used for the bird in form, 2.95. 14; see also in M. Williams). The Ruddy Sheldrake¹ has much of rich orange-brown in its plumage while the Sheldrake has a black head and neck and much white on the lower parts. with a chestnut band accross the breast. Resembling as it does the former it has very appropriately been termed उपचक्र (चक्रेण चक्रवाकेन तुल्य:). उपचत्र is also the See-see Partridge resembling the (Art. 55-C). 451 The noblest of associations surround the and practically date back to the beginnings of Indian civilization. The attachment of a pair to each other, their constant company during the day, conversational contact maintained by both at night as they graze or feed apart on land or water, and their re-union at sun-rise have invested them in popular imagination with the halo of the highest conjugal virtues. No wonder, they are sacred birds not only with the Hindus of India but also the Mongolians and the Kalmucks. They are equally sacred to the Chinese through Mongolian or Indian influences. All through Indian history they have afforded a rich theme to the poets, and a high compliment is paid to them in the Rgveda where they are regarded like the inseparable Asvins: चक्रवाकेव प्रतिवस्तोरुस्रा – 2.39.3. and in the Sükta dealing with the marriage of gaf and the Atharva- veda holds them up as the ideal of conjugal love and fidelity: इहेमाविन्द्र संनुद चक्रवाकेव दम्पती- 14.2.64. The habit of a pair of these birds of calling to each other at night has been recognised in a far where one is named for the deity presiding over the Echoes: प्रतिश्रुत्कायै चक्रवाकः – 24.32. The fidelity of a pair to each other, the rich orange-brown of their plumage, and their habit of keeping together during the day fully justify their selection for god who is the chief upholder of the moral law, wears a golden mantle, and is the lord of the celestial light of day :-- वरुणाय चक्रवाकान्– VS, 24.22. Sanskrit literature is, of course, full of warm and tender references to them. and just a few examples should suffice: 1. The simile of birds for full, round breasts is appropriate only where the latter are closely draped in saffron or orange, and, if exposed, have received a fragrant wash of saffron or the like; cf. कुडूमारुणपयोधरगीर-किरात 9.23; तन्वंशक: कुंकुमरागगौर: अलक्रियन्ते स्तनमण्डलानि-ऋतुसंहार, 6.4. 2. Ti 'red Geese' a pair of which is given to a newly married couple in China may well be these birds though the Snow Goose of the Arctic region is commonly known as the Red Goose See Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1.518. Birds in Sanskrit Literature Herself undergoing severe penance in ice-cold water to secure union with her beloved Siva, Pärvati pities quite naturally the couple separated for the night: परस्पराक्रन्दिनि चक्रवाकयोः पुरोवियुक्त मिथुने कृपावती । 452 - कुमारसंभव, 5.26 The poetic conventions regarding the painful separation of the couples and the closing of the lotus flowers at night have been utilized with considerable effect in the following verse: विश्लेषाकुलचक्रवाकमिथुनैरुत्पीडमाक्रन्दिते कारुण्यादिव मीलितासु नलिनीष्वस्तं च मित्रे गते । शोकेनेव दिगङ्गनाभिरभितः श्यामायमानैर्मुख- निःश्वासानलधूमवर्तय इवोद्गीर्णास्तमोराजयः ।। -नलचम्पू, 5.75 See also नेमिनिर्वाण काव्य, 9.11 People living in the country, somewhere in or beyond the Hima- layas, are truly happy since they are free from marital jealousy: एकैकमनुरक्ताच चक्रवाकमिव ध्रुवम् । अनामया ह्यशोकाश्च नित्यं मुदितमानसाः || -मत्स्यपुराण, 113.76 The desolate condition of Sità in the garden of Rävaņa: सहचररहितेव चक्रवाकी जनकसुता कृपणां दशां प्रपन्ना । - रामायण, 5.16.30 All Swans, Geese and Ducks pair for life but as the Geese are seen moving in flocks as against the , always seen in pairs, the indirectly attributes promiscuity to the Grey Lags get and a conversation between a - . The former, seeing a number of pretty women sporting amorously with a prince na hill overlooking a lake, praises the good luck of the women and the latter criticising their behaviour as unworthy of good women makes the following reply: कलहंसि ! पतिधंन्यो मम धन्याहमेव च । यस्यैकस्यां चिरं चित्तं यस्याकन संस्थितम् ॥ 62.18 of river and lake or The , it will be seen, occupies a status of its own in Hindu cul- ture and this explains why it is particularly named in scenic descriptions the protective clauses of all works on ima. It is quite useless as a table bird, nevertheless sportsmen abuse and defame it for its alertness and the timely warning of approaching danger it gives to its cousins. There is not a single eye-witness or other authentic evidence, e.g.. examination of stomach contents, in support of the vile charge made Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 453 against it that it feeds on dead human bodies. If there were any truth in the allegation the observant Indians would not have missed the fact. On the contrary there is evidence that it is mainly a vegetable feeder and does. not eat fruit or flesh. The of the as named after it, No. 434, makes the following reply to a Crow who envied the former's golden plumage: न अण्णवे संति फलानि ढंक ! मंसं कुतो खादितुं चक्कवाके । सेवालभक्ख' म्ह अवाकभोजना, न घासहेतुं पकरोम पापं ।। What, however, seems probable is that, the bird being held sacred in India, some shrewed Brahman assistant of a sporting Sahib of the old John Com- pany told his boss a deliberate lie to protect the bird and the lie is still persisting. 9. The Mallard or Wild Duck (24") breeds in the Himalayas as else- where in Europe and Asia, is resident in Kashmir, and descends to the plains of North India from the Punjab to Assam and South to Rajasthan and through Madhya Pradesh to Bombay. It prefers large open sheets of water but does not disdain small rivulets, ponds and even ditches. The drake is greyish-white with the head and upper neck glossy emerald-green separated by a white collar from the chestnut breast. It possesses a beauti- ful violet-purple speculum bordered both above and below with black and white bands. The four central tail feathers are black glossed blue- green and curled up backwards. It is a most handsome Duck and "one of the greatest dandies of the bird-world". It is known in Hindi as tafere नीरएगी and लिलगही (fr. नीलशीर्ष or नीलग्रीवक) after the drake's bright green head and neck. पालकाप्य mentions नीलग्रीवक as a water-bird in हस्त्यायुर्वेद, ch. 13, p. 198 and the name clearly refers to the Mallard, The name , in a wider sense, serves as a common base with appropriate epithets to denote quite a number of water-birds including the Mallard (Art. 58). The Mallard with a yellow bill is the stages ; •see पीतवुण्ड in Apte and शब्दकल्पद्रुम' As the most beautiful Duck it is the बन्धुर (Goose-like or beautiful) a and (charming Duck or water- bird) of धन्वन्तरि: अथ बन्धुरः कारण्डवः प्लवो मञ्जुः T in the following example is the Mallard as an ornamental bird on a garden-tank: 1. The synonymy-"चञ्चुसूचिस्तु सुगृहः पीततुण्ड:" with an alternative reading of पीतमुण्ड for पीततुण्ड in विकाण्डशेष has been misunderstood by the commentators in the सारार्थचन्द्रिका and editions (Bombay) and as frage is a kind of Duck or reg the first two names, which really belong to the Weaver Bird, have been incorrectly appropriated to the reg. M. Williams also renders all the three incorrectly but as 'Sylvia sutoria', the Tailor Bird, though his rendering of us as the Weaver Bird (Loxia philippensis) is correct. The entire synonymy with the correct reading of faqe refers exclusively to the Weaver Bird-Art. 22. 454 Birds in Sanskrit Literature तप्तं वारि विहाय तीरनलिनीं कारण्डवः सेवते । -विक्रमोवंशीय, 2.23. The period of courtship in the Mallard is a prolonged one and it pairs very early in the year. During courtship a female may be frequently seen at a considerable height pursued by one or more drakes and performing many coy evolutions, flying in circles with extreme rapidity and keeping up the chase for a considerable time (see Birds of Great Britain and Ireland, Naturalists' Library, Ornithology, Vol. XIV, Part IV, Natatores, under 'Common Wild Duck, the Mallard'). The ancients had certainly observed the behaviour of the bird at its breeding haunts on the lakes in Kashmir and the Himalayas and they very appropriately named it fr ('the amorous Duck'- and M. Will.; cf. also it as an epithet for the Ruddy Sheldrake, the Indian Sarus and the House Sparrow). The drakes of a few other species also have characteristic ways of court- ing the female but they do not breed within Indian limits. The playful circling flight and gaggling high up in the air of the Geese, Mallards, Ruddy Sheldrakes, etc., is called नादावर्त्त :- हंसकारण्डवचक्रवाकादीनां व्योम्ति क्रीडतामावर्ती नादावर्त्तः । -अभि. राजेन्द्र under 'आवट्ट' 10. The Spot-bill or Grey Duck (24") may be readily distinguished by the orange-yellow of the terminal third of its bill and two red spots, one on each side of the forehead, at the base of the bill. It is in Hindi, बरमुधी हंस (prob a phonetic error for वरमुखी हंस fr. वर-कुङ्कम saffron, and मुख face, in reference to the partly orange-yellow bill and the red spots) in Assam, and g (fr. fear vermillion?) in Sind. The Hindi name points to Sansk. is for a Duck so that both the Cotton Teal and share it, while the name वरमुखी हंस (cf. नन्दींमुखी) though lost to the lexicons has been preserved by the people of Assam. It is one of the resident and common Duck of India. 11. The Gadwall (20") is a brown Duck of medium size. "In India the Gadwall is perhaps the most numerous of our non-diving Ducks, occurr- ing in immense flocks from Sind to Assam...." (S. Baker). It is known in Hindi as a which is the same as (Prakrit for dirty) Sansk. af for a kind of हंस in हिन्दी शब्दसागर. The निघण्टुरत्नाकर also has मलिन for a कलहंस which, however, is a little incorrect as no other lexicon supports it. The Gadwall, being of a dark colour (f), is the fage proper. 12. The Wigeon (19") is a Duck of shallow swamps and marshes and "loves feeding in a few inches of water or in water where the weeds come close the top" and they also graze on young crops, and instead of resting during the day like other Ducks it continues to feed "in jheels throughout the day near the edges where they remain among reeds and vegetation" (S. Baker). This Duck is known as fure in Hindi, fr. Sansk. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers fa (fond of eating) which however is not found in any Sanskrit lexicon as a bird-name, but there is reason to believe that frage must have been its Sanskrit name, for it is so very apt. 13. The Common Teal (15") is easily identified from the male's painted face and chestnut-red head and upper neck. A broad shining green band runs through the eye and is bordered both above and below. by a white edging. It is this colour pattern on the face contrasting with the surrounding chestnut which accounts for its Sanskrit name of aff defined as लोहिता तु या रोहिणी स्यात्-कल्पद्रु; cf. लोहित, रोहित for form of incom- plete rainbow; fgfore, a woman with face red coloured with pigments. Its name af in Hindi corresponds to fear of the lexicon, while fit as a water-bird in , ch.13, is this beautiful Duck. Hindi tar for Ducks like this and the Blue-winged Teal with a conspicuous white eye-brow against a pink-brown head is probably derived from Sansk. arft for face-decoration with various scented pigments'. 455 14. The principal feature of the graceful Pintail Duck (22") are its long, pointed pin-like central tail feathers which project at an angle well beyond the tail. It is known as सींकपर (श पन) in Hindi; शलांच (शल्यहंस, same as we below) in Bengali; and faqe (eriges) in Cutch. Sanskrit name is , which occurs with f (a needle?) in ft in a mixed list of names for ge. The occurrence of this Duck on the Himalayan lakes is mentioned in the fago proper = शोभितं चक्रवाकाद्यैः कादम्बैहंसशङ्क, भिः - 2.22.59. "For the table they (Pintails) are among the best of all the Duck" and they were certainly eaten in India. The medical treatise, , prohibits the [ हंस to a patient suffering from piles in the chapter, बर्शोऽधिकार. 15. The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal is a brown and black Duck streaked white in parts, with blue and grey on the wings and a broad white supercilium. It is common all over India from September onwards and visits large swamps, village tanks and even ponds. Being a nightfeeder it rests by day and causes a good deal of damage to winter rice and wheat crops. One of the peculiarities of its flight noticed by Stuart Baker is that like the White-eyed Pochard, the Scaup and the Goosander it rises. obliquely from the water. The वैजयन्ती describes हंस साचि as a क्षुद्र हंस or Duck, and the descriptive epithet साचि in the name ( "तिर्यगर्थे साचि:"-अमर, going or moving side-ways) would seem to refer to its oblique flight. The word has perhaps some such significance in the following passage : साचीव वै वयः पक्षी कृत्वा पतीयः पतति ___-पश्चविशब्राह्मण, 5.1.12. 1. This name is on a par with ' (constantly eating) for a horse who, not being a ruminant, need not stop like cattle to chew the cud. 456 Sayaça explains the above as follows: Birds in Sanskrit Literature वयः पक्षी साचीव व तियंगिव पक्षी कृत्वा पतीयः पतति, अतिशयेन पतनं elfer........ In a af or oblique flight the bird's wings must assume a different attitude from that in a straight and forward flight. Now the question is which of the above four birds is the af. The Scaup is a very rare visitor to India and must be left out of account. The Goosander, being entirely carnivorous and having a thin, toothed and pointed bill designed for catching fish, is not regarded as a gu but a special kind of (See Nos.24-25 below)., 5.13 almost certainly includes it with birds like the Cormorant and Darter in the comprehensive expression" "-'all birds that catch fish by diving'. That leaves us with the White-eyed Pochard and the Garganey. The former is the fearge, which is a very old name since it occurs as an alternative reading, though incorrect for मल्लिकाव्य in अमर, वैजयन्ती, itself, and other lexicons. What is more, it does not identify gearf: with it. Further, the Pochard "gets off (the water) badly, fluttering about and rising very obliquely" but the Garganey "rises quicker off the water, getting up obliquely" and is really a fast flier. This last, therefore, seems to answer best the description of a fast enfa flight given by Sayana. The only mention of the gefer is to be found in the तैत्तिरीय संहिता: आदित्ये हंससाचि:- 5.5.20. where affer is the Sky-goddess and the Garganey or the Blue winged Teal having a fast flight and some blue on the wings would seem to have commended itself to the author of the Samhità as a bird having some esoteric connection with the sky. 16. The Shoveller (20") is a beautiful Duck, the male having a shining dark-green head and neck. It occurs singly or in small parties on dirty ditches, village ponds and weedy jheels. The peculiarly spatulate or shovel-like bill, very much broader towards the tip than at the base, is specific. It is known as farger in Hindi and in Sanskrit from its habit of frequenting ditches and pools (ra): दिदृक्षुरन्तः सरसीमलध्यं यत्खातहंसः समुदीक्ष्य वप्रम् । सस्मार नूनं दृढकौञ्च कुञ्ज - भागच्छिदो भार्गवमार्गणस्य ।। -जानकीहरण, 1.5. The reference to a has misled the annotator to translate mag as a Swan but the pocet certainly knew better than to place the nobler Swan or Goose in a ditch or moat. He knew not only the habits of the Shoveller but also the fact that, being one of our winter visitors, it caine accross the Hiinalayas and therefore through the traditional gear and would return Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers home the same way. It is this memory of the familiar passage which the poet has attributed to the bird and made it think of the arrow of Parashuram to cut a hole through the high city-wall. 457 Newton describes in his Dictionary of Birds the peculiar habit of the Shoveller, a surface-feeder, "as swinging round in circles with its bill in the water above the spot where Pochards are diving and feeding beneath, and sifting out the substances that float up when disturbed by the operation of the diving Ducks." This peculiar habit and the shape of its bill would justify the Sanskrit name of rare (r, churning) for 'a kind of bird' as specific for it: खजाक: स्यात्पुंसि दघ्नो विकारे विगान्तरे - पेरुसूरि, उणादि, 4. 68& शब्दकल्पद्रुम are also means 'a ladle or spoon' so that the Duck answers to the name in both senses, the 'churning rod' typifies its feeding habit and the 'spoon' its bill broad at the tip. Even at other times it feeds by moving its bill in the water from side to side like the Spoon-bill Stork which also the name would apply, and the two would be age and respectively (see Art 81). The Bengali naine खतामुखी (खता spade; पंतामुखी in F.B.I seems to be an error) for the Duck is the same as are. Ta 17. The Marbled Teal (18.5") is a resident Duck wherever found but is most common in Sind and less so in the Punjab, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh. It seldom shows itself in open water and keeps to and feeds in reeds, swampy vegetation, lily-beds, etc. It is known in Sind as and is obviously the क्षयि हंस defined by वैजयन्ती as a bird of the lily-beds: "क्षविस्तु कुबलायिकः ". उणादि भोजीयानि Pt. 2 gives this name but M. Williams has perhaps omitted it as a corrupt reading. The name is from fer-2, to live in an undisturbed or secret place (M.W.). 18 & 19. The Nyrocinae subfamily of Ducks, which includes the Pochards, consists of diving Ducks many of which feed on deep-water plants, roots,etc. and are often known as ger (divers) in Hindi. Sansk. #f (fr. to dive or sink under water), perhaps rendered incorrectly as the 'female Sarus' (which never dives) by M. Williams, should be a common name for these diving Ducks just as , from the same root, de- notes the Darter; cf. also the phrase "fr" in 1, 5.13 referring to birds like the Cormorants, Darter, Goosanders, etc. all of which dive. for their fish-food. These Ducks as a class are also the age (lily-root (eaters) of कल्पद्वकोश. The Red-crested Pochard with a red bill (21*) is सालचोंच (रक्तचञ्चु) and लालसिर or रंगपुड़िया (रक्तशीर्ष, रक्तमूर्द्धन्) while the Pochard or Dun-bird with a blackish bill (18") is simply afer in Hindi and both would therefore share the name of td with the Pink-headed Duck in Sanskrit with probably as an additional epithet for the former, the Red-crested Pochard. The Dun-bird may also be Birds in Sanskrit Literature 20 & 21. The White-eyed Pochard (16") and the Eastern White Eye (18") are closely allied forms and are the aferer g (white-eyed) of literature: 458 एतस्मिन्मदकल मल्लिकाक्षपक्षव्याधूतस्फुरदुरुदण्डपुण्डरीका -मालतीमाधव, 9.14; उत्तररामचरित, 1.31. It is one of the water-birds in a. The call-note of this Pochard is a koor-ker-ker", uttered both when feeding in a lake and when rising. from the water. This agrees very well with the description of the bird as . The alternative reading of fe (the Mute Swan) is incorrect as the epithet is inapplicable to it, for it is a silent bird and utters its soft low call chiefly when pairing (Sanders). Moreover the Swan on the Pampa lake placed in the extreme south of India in fe is an impossibility. fer is, therefore, the correct reading and it means the White-eyed Pochard. The last paragraph of the third of also places the fear on the Pampa lake. 22. The Tufted Pochard (17") has a black head and wears a long pendant occipital crest glossed with purple. It goes by the name of मालक in Nepal and बम्हनियां हंस (fr. ब्राह्मण) in Assam. मालिक (v.J. मालक, one wearing a wreath) is a kind of bird in feft and evidently refers to this. Duck, 1 The Assamese name clearly refers to the bird's long crest resembling a Brahman's fear or top-knot which is often allowed to hang behind the head. पालकाप्य has ब्रह्मपुत्र as a water-bird in हस्त्यायुर्वेद. The शिखा of a Brahman is also known as ब्रह्मपुत्री ("ब्रह्मपुत्री शिखायाम्" शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि) and sage Nārada famous for his शिखा is also ब्रह्मपुत्र The ब्रह्मपुत्र of पालकाप्य is therefore no other than the Tufted Pochard which is found from Sind to Assam. 23. The Smew and the Goosanders are members of the subfamily Merginae consisting of fish-eating Ducks of great diving powers. Their legs are placed far back on the body which makes it very difficult for them to walk. The bill is armed with hard tooth-like serrations which enable the birds to catch and hold fish under water. The male Smew (17") is a beautiful black and white bird with a black patch on either side of the white head and face and the underparts pure white. It often goes under the name of the White Nun in England. It is very common in Sind and fairly so in North India. In Sind it is called ft (a basket) and frgft (Skt. frarft a receptacle) in the Uttar Pradesh. Both the names are analogous to Skt. for 'a basket' and point to 1. fer for a kind of bird in M. Williams would seem to be a mistake as the term means an open semi-circular loop with a horizontal bar at the base serving as a perch for a pet bird tied to it with a ring (on the bird's leg) and chain "पक्षिमल्ले च मालिका" -विश्व and हेमचन्द्र पक्षिमल्ल means a thing ie. a cage that holds a bird'. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers being the bird's Sanskrit name. Its thin and dark slaty-coloured bill accounts for the name - (crow-billed) in where the name has been correctly rendered as श्वेतकारण्डव by चक्रदत्त, कृष्णकारण्डव being the Coot. The Smew is thus the श्वेत or काकतुण्डक-कारण्डव. It may be noted that the members of this group are not regarded as varieties हंसक or Duck, probably because they are fish eaters. 24 & 25. The Goosander and the Eastern Goosander (25 & 22° respectively) are allied birds. The first is a winter visitor from Northern Europe and Asia, to Sind and the second breeds the Himalayas and visits North India in winter. Both are black above and white below, the white underparts being suffused with a beautiful rosy-salmon colour. The bill and legs are red in both, and from the colour of the bill they are the मणितुण्डक (कारण्डव) of चरक ; cf. fare for the Sarus with red eyes. Both are voracious fish-eaters: "The gorging ended, the birds sit on some sand-bank so full that when disturbed they have to disgorge before moving" (S. Baker), and they probably owe their name or to this habit of gorging them- selves to the neck and thus resembling, so to say, a or fish- basket. 459 The word we means or a sort of Duck, and the sun according to and M. Williams. Evidently it is meant as a descriptive epithet or adnoun for as a particular bird, viz., the Goosander. This is supported by a striking simile in the Rāmāyaṇa where the clear blue sky is pictured as a large placid lake looking beautiful with lilies and birds dotted here and there. The moon (presumably less than full and there- fore above the horizon at sun-rise or sun-set, and not very bright either) is a white lily, the sun, a Goosander, the constellations of Aquila and Cancer, the Bar-head Geese, the star Arcturus, a Swan, the Gemini constellation, a whale; the Mars, an alligator; the mythological Airavata elephant, a large island; and stray clouds, the Saivāla weed in the heavenly lake:-- सचन्द्रकुमुदं रम्यं सार्ककारण्डवं शुभम् । तिष्यश्रवणकादम्बम श्रश्वालशाद्वलम् ॥ -5.57.2-4. Ther of this picture can only be the Goosander with white under- parts suffused with pink, red bill and red legs, described elsewhere as the 'golden' rv. No other member of the group would be appropriate. We thus have two names for the Goosanders, मणितुण्डक and भसत्-कारण्डव. 1 Similarly epithet तरतु for a कारण्डव in विश्वप्रकाश refers to these birds after their quick movements on water when fishing or sporting as described 1. The Goosanders can be were in a different sense as well if the term is derived from root w to chew with the jaws or teeth as the bills of these birds are particularly well armed with toothed serrations to enable them to catch fish. The name would then mean the 'gorging or glutton Duck' but the quotation from the Ramayana seems to negative this suggestion. 460 Birds in Sanskrit Literature by S. Baker: "They seem to be equally at home in the deep slowly-moving pools or in the wildest torrents and it is a most beautiful sight to see a party of these birds playing in either kind of water." They fish forming a wide semi-ring and although "the birds dash hither and thither, both on and under water, with almost incredible speed, the formation is never broken...". Exactly such a scene is described as 'a beautiful dance' of a party of 'golden re birds' upon a certain river: काञ्चनमयाङ्गविलसत्कारण्डवषण्डताण्डवमनोज्ञाम् -श्रीललितास्तवरत्नम्, 84; काव्यमाला, Pt. 10. refers to their vermilion bill and feet. Finally, the following two lists of Ducks showing their preference for(i) tanks and lakes, or (ii) rivers and lakes should help a student of Sanskrit literature in forming a rough idea of the sort of birds a poet has in mind when using the phrase, gert, to describe a lake, tank or river. It must, however, be .remembered that ge in this phrase includes the Geese and Ducks, and, the Mallard, the Smew, the Goosander and the Coot. 85 GREBES Grebes constitute a group of water-birds easily distinguished from others by their being practically tailless and the peculiar structure of their feet, which are placed far behind and have toes furnished with broad lobes and flat blunt nails. 1. The Little Grebe or Dab-chick is common on tanks and reedy margins of slower rivers. It is a small bird about 9 inches long, and feeds on insects, vegetable matter and small fish for which last it is expert diver. It is mentioned in वसन्तराज as वज्जुल (पाणंतरा in Rajasthan correspond- ing to Hindi for eft) as a bird of omen in ch. 4, 21. It has a curious tittering note, a shrill rippling whinny audible for some distance, and its alarm note is a sharp 'tui, tui'. As the bird is common on all way-side tanks and even ponds of some size its inclusion in the list of birds of augury is easily understood. It is mentioned twice in the Rāmāyaṇa both as a river and tank bird: सरितं वापि सम्प्राप्ता मीनवजुलसेविताम् । कारण्ड: सारसह सर्वञ्जुलैर्जलकुक्कुटे: । Poet wayfa's appreciation of the soft notes is to be seen in the following verse: आमञ्जुवञ्जुलस्तानि च तान्यमूनि । नीरन्ध्रनीलनिचुलानि सरितटानि ॥–उत्तररामचरित 1. III.61.16. 2. IV.13.8. 3. 2.23. Scribes who knew merely as a kind of reed or cane and could not therefore make sense of the words "af" introduced their own emendations like "वज्जुललतानि" or "मज्जुललतानि" for them, forgetting for the moment that the poet would not refer twice to vegetation on the river bank in the same verse. On the other hand the dense reedy growth is indeed the place for the birds who actually derive their name from the reeds they live in. 462 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 2. The Black-necked Grebe is a larger bird, about 12 inches long, found in India as a winter visitor. The place nearest to India where it breeds is Baluchistan. In the breeding plumage the birds have a line of long, silky, hair like feathers of a golden colour commencing behind the eye and running down the neck, and the synonyms "वज्जुलकः कर्णवालखगे" in शब्दार्थचिन्तामणि would seem belong to it. The name or epithet कर्णवाल is clearly indicative of the tufts of hair-like feathers growing from behind the eye which is the region of the ear in a bird. The Black-necked Grebe is also known as the Eared Grebe and is er in Sanskrit. Its call note is a soft 'pee-ep' and alarm note is a sharp 'whit, whit'. The largest bird of the group occurring in India is the Great Crested Grebe (18 to 22"). It is distinguished by a short bifid black crest and a ruff of long black feathers round the neck and falling over the breast. It breeds in the Himalayas, occasionally in Kashmir and locally in North India. It is the कण्ठपाल वञ्जुल of the equation in वैजयन्ती "कण्ठपालस्तु " the epithet are referring to the protective sort of ruff round the neck. The call note the softer notes of the of this Grebe is a harsh 'krek, krek' as against Little Grebe and it is more probably the of augury in बृहत्संहिता' and वसंतराज 2 It is defined in the former as बदिरचञ्चु (having a brown-bill) which agrees with the dark brown bill of this bird as againt the black bill of the other Grebes. It has been regarded as a bird of good omen under the name of बञ्चुलक (v.1. वज्जुलक) in the Rāmāyaṇa:3 एष बञ्चुलको नाम पक्षी परमदारुणः । आयोविजय युद्धे शंसन्निव विनर्दति ॥ The तिलक व्याख्या (NS. Press Edn.) renders बञ्चुलक as कण्ठवाल bird, clearly the same as as a possible name for the diver see the next. Article. . For The Great Crested Grebe "carries the long neck upright and from a distance looks somewhat like a cygnet" (Dewar). This fact coupled with its black crest is responsible for the name feage by which it is known in Assam, 1. 87.5. 2. 4.21. 3, 3.69.23. 86 DIVERS The Divers seem to stand midway between the Auks, Puffins, etc., on the one hand and the Grebes on the other. Like the Grebes their legs are placed far back on the body, and like them again they are unable to walk more than a few paces on the ground. They have great powers. of submergence and dive and swim under water in pursuit of their fish- food just as the Grebes do. They have been separated from the latter on certain anatomical grounds including their fully webbed feet like the ducks. The Black-throated Diver, the only one of the family, was once found in the Ambala district in the year 1922. It is much bigger than the largest Grebe and its call is a loud prolonged wail, audible at an immense distance. The Divers are essentially sea-birds but they resort to fresh water for breeding purposes. Even otherwise they are not unfrequently found far from the sea, being either driven inland by stress of weather, or exhausted. in their migrations." It is, therefore, quite likely that, though the bird is a very rare winter visitor to India at the present time, in the different. conditions obtaining in the country nearly two thousand years ago, the bird visited India with some regularity and in larger numbers. If so, it would certainly be regarded as a larger variety of the Grebe which it so closely resembles in habits, and the name as may well refer to it. The description of as with reference to its loud call, as e would seem to support this suggestion. The voice of the Great Crested Grebe, identified with ger in the preceding article (q.v.) is no doubt a harsh 'krek, krek' but it is doubtful how far the bird may be characterised as . Moreover, the different spelling also may imply a distinction between the Grebe (वज्जुलक) and Diver ( बञ्चुलक). 1. Ency. Brit., 11th edition. Index Adjutant [-दीघंपादकडू], 401 Adjutant Stork [गलेशुण्ड भारण्ड, दीर्घपाद, बृहत्वयुवक, महाचंचुवक, हस्तिलिंग भारण्ड] 184, 209, 213, 231, 243, 392, 398, 399 Aethopyga, 114 African Plover [ मूलिंगशकुनि ], 362 Aitchinson, E.T.. 927 Aitken, E.H., 162 Albinism, 81 Alfred Newton ( British Zoologist), 338 Andpdh (animals and birds occupying wet zones), 286 Arupakrauitcamyaha (a particular array of army), 413, 414 Ashy-crowned Finch Lark, 111 Ashy Swallow Shrike [-तालचटक], 61 Ashy Wren Warbler [पुरल्लिका, पुरिल्लक, टुण्टुक, ], 69 Asiatic Cuckoo [ चित्रकोकिल, पुष्पकोकिल ], 129 Asiatic Indian Sparrow Hawk [वासा ],221 Asiatic Sparrow Hawk, 238 Assam Large Racket-tailed Drongo, 64 Asvaghosa, 32, 114, 120, 166 Augury, 6, 12, 31, 35 Avocet [ फुसियाचाहा, कषिका, कुषीतक, प्रवालपाद, लालगोड़ी हलीमुख ], 361 B Babbler [-कुरुबाहुक], 28, 30, 87, 127 Bailey, H. W., 52 Bakasadhu, 388 Bakavrtti 388 Banabhatta, 209, 211 Banded Bay Cuckoo [चातक], 130 131 Banded Crake / Rail [=कुलवारी, चित्रांगद], 292 Bank Myna [गङ्गामैना, गाङ्गसारिक ], 85 Barbet [-पिप्पल, मंजुली, मंजुलीतक, मंजुलीयक, मंयुली, मियोली, वटहा], 26, 123 124 Barhaspatya Vytha, 413 Bar-headed Geese, V-flight of, 386 Bar-headed Goose [-कादम्ब हंस ], 426, 436, 438 Barn Owl [ क्वयि, कुटरू कुवय, कुवि, चन्द्रक चन्द्रकोलूक, रक्तनासिक, श्वेतोलूक ], 173, 176 Bar-tailed Cuckoo Dove [-तुषार-रूपोत, तुसाल ], 257, 260 Barua, B. M., 77 Basha Sparrow Hawk, 221 Bay Owl [ ताम्रेलूक ] 176 Bean Goose, 437 Bearded & Neophron Vultures [भास], 199 Bearded Bee-eater [कपिञ्जल], 147, 148 Bearded Vulture [-अलज, वाजगृध, गोष्ठ- कुक्कुट, गोष्ठगोचर, गोष्ठचर, पोष्टकुक्कुट, जटायु, पक्षिप्रवर, भास, मनुष्यवदन भारण्ड, वट, शकुन्त], 181, 188, 191, 192, 193, 195 196, 197, 199, 207, 228, 399 Bce-eater [पिप्पिक, दिव्य, दिव्यक, धन्वन, शार्ग, सम्] 147ff Bee-eater, as a bird of augury, 150. Bengal Florican [-तृणवहीं, वारट, शावलि ], 329-330 Bengal Jungle Babbler, 29 Bengal Red-vented Bulbuls, 35 Bengal Red-whiskered Bulbul [-कणिकार ], 35 Bengal Sirkeer Cuckoo 140 Besra Hawk [बेसर], 220, 221, 237 Bewick's Swan, 424 Bhandarkar, R. G., 77 Bhāravi, 204 Bhartrhari, 136 Bhattotpala, 150, 252, 257, 258 Bhavabhūti 8, 27, 461 Bhutan Peacock-Pheasant [-जीवजीवक ], 273 Bird of Augury [-शाकुनेय ], 49, 177 'Birds of nine colours' [-नौरंग ], 117 Birds of Prey [प्रसह ], 211, 341 Bittern, 405, 406 Black & White-billed Crow [नशाककाक, सितनीलचञ्चुकाक]], 2 Black-backed Goose, 448 Black-backed Kalij Pheasant, 275 Black Bee, 134 Black-bellied Tern, 347 Blackbird [-कलविक, कलानुनादी कलविक, कस्तूरा, कालचटक, कालजित, गृहकुलिंग, ग्रामचटक, मणितुण्ड कलविक, मणितुण्ड श्यामा, श्यामा], 44, 49, 50, 52, 93 Blak-breasted Kalij Pheasant, 275, 276. Black-breasted / Rain Quail [वर्तिका, चीना बटेर], 285 466 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Black Bulbul [[कर्णियक, गोवत्सक, दुकंल, Blood Pheasant [शारपद, सीरपाद ], 281 पर्यष्टिका, पर्यन्दिका, वनबकरा], 38 39 Bloomfield, 153 Black-crested Baza, 211, 242, Black-crested Kalij [कोणालक, कोंड़ा], 302 Black-crested Yellow Bulbul, 37 Black Crow [-काकोल, क्रूरवार, महाप्राण ],3,8 Black Drongo [-कालका, भूग, भृङ्गराज ], 40, 49, 62, 65, 67, 72, 132 Black Bagle [-द्रोणक, भल्लक, भल्लूक]. 211, 212, 231 Black-faced Crow [-नीलास्यकाक ], 2 Black Goose [ कालहंस], 436 Black-headed and Black-crested Bulbuls [अंगारचूडक] 34 Black-headed Buntings, 95 Black-headed Gull [गंगाचिल्ली] 399, 343 Black-headed Oriole, 51, 72, 77, 79, 80 Black-headed Sibia, 31 Black Ibis [ आटि, आटी, आडि, आडी, कालकण्टक दात्यूह, कालकण्ठ दात्यूह, जलकाक, दात्यूह, धवलस्कन्ध, भूकाक, रक्तशीर्ष], 81, 224, 294, 352, 353, 381, 383, 385 Black Ibis, as a favourite quarry, 385 Black-necked Grane [– नीलकण्ठ सारस, नीलस्कन्ध 1. 319, 321 Black-necked Crow [ श्यामगल काक], 6 Black-necked Grebe. 462 Black-necked Sarus (नीलकष्ठ सारस ] 311 Black-necked Stork [ करालफाल बक, कृष्णग्रीव, जायानुजीवी बक, लोहसारंग ], 391, 992 Black Partridge] [[कृष्णतित्तिर, चित्रपक्ष, तित्तिर] 283 Black-plumaged Grow [अन्यभूतपक्ष काक श्यामगल काक]. 6 Black red-billed Chough [-सोहूतुण्डकाकोल ], 6 Black Redstart [=कपेक्षुक, खजरी, चलपिच्छक], 49 - Black-rumped Magpic [ कालकूट ], 12, 14 Black Sparrow [ कालचटक ], 49 Black Stork [-कालबक], 390 Black-tailed Godwit [-आरा, आरामुखी, गुदेरा, बड़ा चाहा, मलगूझा], 366 Black-tailed Sparrow, [-कालपुच्छ चटक ], 94 Black-throated Diver, 463 Black-throated Jay [ वनचाष, वनसर्रा], 16 Black-throated Weaver-bird [शरकोलीक, शरया, 89 Biack Vulture [अरुण, उद्दीपक गृध, कुण्डली, वि, धराज, रक्ताङ्ग, लालमायाशकुनि, सुमुख ] 10, 188, 196, 197 Black Wagtail, 103 Black-winged Kite [-कपासी, कार्पासिका, कुमुद], 246 Blanford and Oates, 159, 182 'Blind Heron' [अन्धा बगला ], 404 Blossom-headed Paroquet [कृष्णांग शुरू, 143, 144 Blue-bearded Bee-eater [जरितारि], 148, 152 Blue-breasted Banded Rail [कुलवारी, चिवाद] 292 Blue-breasted Quail [चीना बटेर], 285 • Blue Hawk [-नीलच्छद श्येन] 218, 219, 221, 222 Blue-headed Rock Thrush [=कृष्णपक्षी, कृष्णपविन्, सितपक्षिणी], 46, 48 Blue Heron [-नीलांग ], 18 Blue Jay [ यनचाय ], 16, 22, 146, 187 Blue Magpies, [दुर्गा] 13 Blue-naped Pitta, 117 Blue Nuthatch, 24 Blue Pitta (of Bhutan), 117 Blue Rock Pigeon [पारावत ], 27, 250, 261 Blue Rock Pigeon, as an auspicious bird. 250 Blue Rock Thrush [उमा, पाण्डविक, पाण्डविका, पाण्डश्यामा, दुर्गा], 13, 47, 48, 50 Blue-tailed Bee-cater, 147, 148, 152 Blue-throated Barbet [ है तुरुक], 124 Blue-throated Flycatcher [चटकी, चटकिका, चटिका], 56, 68 Blue-throated Jay [वनचाव], 16 Blue-winged Teal [ पनाली ], 455 Blyth's Reed Warbler [==टिकटिकी], 69 Bombaycilla, 97 Bonelli's Eagle [मयूरग्नी, मोरंगी, वर्तुलाक्ष श्येन ], 74, 210, 211 Booby [-मत्स्यर] 376 Brahmadatta (a king), 77, 101 Brahminy Duck, 219, 450 Brahminy Kite [=अरिष्टकडू कङ्क, कम्बवातायिनु, कमनच्छद कुंकुमारक्त, क्षेमकुरी, खकामिनी, चचिका, धर्मचिल्ल, रणालकरण, सोहपृष्ठक शंखचिल्ल] 29, 164, 213, 234, 242, 243, 244, 246 Brahminy Myna [कबरी, गौरिका, शङ्करा], 83, 86 Brave Hawk [ सञ्चान, सिचान ], 241 Brhaspati, 65, 413 Broad-billed Roller [-स्वर्णचूडचाष, हेमतुण्डचाय], 16, 20 Broad-bills [ राजिशुक], 118 Bronzed Drongo, 38 Bronze winged Jacana [जलकपोत, जल- पारावत], 304 ‘Brown-eyed' Falcon [कृष्णाक्ष श्येन, पक्षकलिका, स्याहचरमबाज ]. 217, 232 Brown Dipper [वजुल, जलकर, जलचर ], 48 Index Brown Fish Owl [फोण्ठ, कोट्ठ ] 157, 180 Brown Hawk [ वर्तुलाश, ] 211 Brown Hawk Owl, [=कृष्णपेचक, कालपेचक ], 179 Brown-headed Gull, 339, 340 Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher [कट फर्कटक, कर्करे ], 156, 157 Brown, James Moray, 76 Brown-necked Raven [-दग्धकाक, रक्तद्रोण, रक्तद्रोणकाक ], 1, 3, 5, 20 Brown Rock Chat [ मटिया श्यामा ], 44, 47 Brown Rock Thrush [मटिया श्यामा ], 47 Brown Wood Owl, 178 Brown Wren, 42 Bulbuls [ कर्णियक, गोवत्सक, पर्यन्दिका, रला, लट्वा], 34f. Bulbuls with black head or crest [अंगार- चूडक], 39 Bulbuls with white or white & red patch in the ear-region [श्रीकर्ण ], 39 Bull Finches [कलविक, कालपुच्छ चटक ], 95 Bunting [अन्नदूषक, आटकचटक, कणमक्षक, कुलिंग, कृषिद्विष्ट, भारिट, भारीट, भीरु, भोरिट, वनचटक, श्यामचटक, शैशिर] 92 93 95 96, 141 Bush-Chat, 44 Bush Lark [-कराट, कराटचरचरा], 53, 110 Bush Quail [-अल्पकपिज्जल, लघुजांगल], 285, 286 Bustards, 325 ff. Bustard Quail [दर्भरलाव, लापायिका, लापसकुण, लाव, लोपा], 285, 286, 287, 291 Bustard Quail, skulking habits of, 288 Button Quail [पौण्ड्रक लाव], 287 Buzzard [गिरिशाल, चूहामारबाज ], 242ff. Buzzard Eagle [-द्रोणक ], 212 C C Cakradatta (a commentator on Caraka) 36, 199 Cakrapapidatta (a commentator), 99, 167, 259 Calendrella, 109 Camel Crane [उष्ट्र्रय ], 281 Ganaries, 142 Caraka, 28, 92, 93, 124, 129, 132, 137, 140, 164, 171, 210, 211, 259, 260, 274, 275, 282, 285, 292 Cäritravardhanacárya, 134 Carrion & Jungle Crows [ अरण्य-काक, काक, काकोल, कृष्णकाक, घ्यांक्ष, पर्वतकाक, मौकलि, मौकुलि, वनकाक], 1, 6, 7 Caspian Tern [केकरा] 347 467 - Cătaka, 131, 133, 134 136, 137 Catechu, 27 Cattle Egret [= गायबगला, गोबक, ढोरिया बगला, बाकिका], 404 Central Indian Bulbuls, 35 Changeable Hawk-Bagle [शदल ] 210, 211 Chanting Falcon [अमृतवाका, दक्ष, सुस्वर ], 226 Chat, 44, 45, 50, 127 Cheer Pheasants [-रक्तवर्त्म, रक्तवत्मक], 275 Cherrug Falcon चरक, चरब, चरम, चर्च, वर्ग, तरक्षक, तरक्षु, दगतुण्ड ], 221, 228, 231 Chestnut-bellied (or Cinnamon-bellied) Nut- hatch [कंदली, कंदलक, कंदगलक], 26 Chestnut Bittern [चन्द्रविहङ्गम, ज्योत्स्नावक, जुनबगल], 406 Chestnut-headed Bec-eater, 148, 152 Chinese Swan, 423 Chloropsis [-पक्षगुप्त, पत्नगुप्त, हरित, हरेवा], 33, 122, 144 Chough [सुवर्णकाक, सुवर्णवायस ], 10, 20 Chukar [चकोर], 282 Cicada Fly, 39 Cinercous Vulture [ कालगिद्ध, कालगुध, श्याव] 188, 189, 190 Ginnamon-bellied Nuthatch [ कन्दली], 25, 26, 27 Clamator Jacobinus, 131 Cliff Swallow [-चटक ], 99 Gock [-कुक्कुट ], 18, 138 Cock-bird [कोंगरा, कृष्णशकुनि ], 46, 302 Cock-fighting, 271 Cock Nightingale, 51 Cockroach, 85, 89 Colebrook, 417 Collared Pigmy Owlet [-टुण्डुल क्षुद्रोलूक]], 178 Columbidne, 250 Comb- Duck [ नकटा, नासाच्छिना], 448 Gommon Babblers [-कुरुबाहुक ], 28, 29 Common Bee-eater [कुलाली शकुनिका ], 147, 148, 150 Common Black Drongo [-कालचटक ], 49, 62 Common Cock [पुष्पशकुन ? ], 281 Common Crane [कॉन, लक्ष्मण सारस ], 312 Common Crane, as a pet bird of Royalty, 324 Common Flamingo [क्रुद्ध, कुञ्च, बक, बलाक, बरहंस] 408, 409 Common Grey Hornbill [-पतियल धनेश, पत्र वाघणस, सिरखिली, सेलगिल्ली], 159, 161 Common Hawk Cuckoo [-चातक], 130 Common (or Grey) Heron 23, 243 468 Common Hill Partridge [पिउरा], 282 Common House-Swallows & Swifts [ चिरिल्ली, देवकुलचटक], 167 Common House Swift [मटिल, अडिल्ल, अलिल, चरिल्ली, देवकुलचटक, प्राणक], 99, 163, 166, 167 Common Indian Bee-eater [-कीर्शा, पत्रिगा, वेदराघू], 147, 150 Common Indian Kingfisher [नीका किलकिला, मणीचक, सुचित्रक], 155 Common Kingfisher [सुचित्रक] 117 155 Common Kite [ क्षुद्रगृधी, गृध, गृधी], 189 Common Myna [ कलहप्रिया, कलहप्रिया सारिका, कलहाकुला, गाङ्गसारिक, गोराटी, चित्रनेत्रा, पीतनेखा, पीतपादा, यक्षकुणपी, सारिका], 30, 81, 82, 85, 87 Common Pariah Kite [आतायिन् क्षुद्रगुटी, गृधी, चिल्ल, चिरम्भण, शकुनि1, 245 Common (or Grey) Quail [=बड़ा बटेर, बर्तक]], 285 Common Red-vented Bulbuls (of North India) [=पेच, फ्रेंच, फँचाक, फैजातक], 39 Common Sand Grouse [ककर, काकर], 265 Common Sparrow, 124 Common Swallow [ उत्पत्पपाकला, विषण्ण [ श्यामा], 100 Common Teal [ रोहिणी, रोहिणीक, लोहिता, लोहियाकेर्स], 455 Common Whistling Teal [शरालि, शराली, शरेल सरल, सरालि, सिलही, हराली], 450 Common & Wire-tailed Swallows & House Martins [ अवली, उत्पत्यपाकला, निषण्णश्यामा, पाका, पाकुल, पाकोली, पुत्रिका ], 100 Coot [=कारण्डव, मरुल, शकटाविल], 298, 299, 300 Coppersmith [संबायत], 124 125 Coral-billed Scimitar Babbler [-मणितुण्डक] 31, 49 Cormorant [=जलकाक, पानीयकाकिका, प्लव, जलकौआ ] 299, 371 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Crested Cuckoo, 136 Crested Goshawk [ चूलांक जवलकण्ठिक]], 220, 236, 238, 241 Crab Plover [-वेलाघर, वैलातक]. 336 Crag Martin, [कुटिदूसक, नकुटि, नहिकुटि], 99 Crane [-नीलांग, पुष्कराह व सारस], 18, 224, 227, 311 Cranes, 309ff. Grested Bunting [-आटकचटक, फिरोटी, चिरटा, • चिरिटीक, चिरोटी, तिरोट, तिरोटी], 93, 96 Crested Hawk Eagle [ शशादश्येन ], 210 Crested Lark [=कण्डोल, कलबिक, चूडाल, चण्डूल, तिलककण्टक ], 50, 93, 94, 108, 110, 11 Giested Serpent-Eagle [नागाशी, सांपमार, सर्पचर, सर्पान्त, सपरि], 211 Crested Sky-Lark, 108 Crested Swift [=एकपुलक], 168, 169 Crested Swift, as a bird of augury, 168 Crimson Horned Pheasaunt, 281 Crimson-throated Barbet [ डिण्डिमाणवक, [ डिण्डिमानक, तम्बायत, तमेरा, हेमक, हेमकतूं', हरण्यक ], 124 125 Crow [ आत्मघोष, काक, काकोल, करट, चिरजीविन् ध्वाङक्ष, बलिपुष्ट, मौकुलि, मौद्गलि, वायस, सकृत्प्रज] 1. Crow Family [काकवंश ] 20 Crow Pheasant [-कुंभारकुकड़ी, कुलालकुक्कुट ], 71, 137, 150 Crows & Their Allies, 1ff. Cuckoo [अन्यवाप, कलकण्ठ, किकिर, किकिरात, कोकिल, गंधर्व, परपुष्ट, परभृत्, मधुकण्ठ, मधुघोष], 23, 33, 60, 110, 117, 127 ff. Curlew [ उत्क्रोशी कुररी], 342 Cut-Water [पनचिरा, शरारी], 351 Cygnus Davidii, 429, 425, 428 D Dab-Chick [ पनडुब्बी, पनतिरी, वज्जुल]. 43, 461 Dalhapa, 29, 36, 49, 93, 94, 144, 159 185, 259, 266, 282, 285, 286 Damayanti, 432 Dapdi, 118, 143 Darila, 76 Darter [मृद्गु], 371 Demoiselle Crane [कर्करेट करकटिया, करकर्रा, कुर्रा, कुरर, खरकौञ्च, नीलांग सारस, पंक्तिचर- कुरर], 186, 224, 312, 320, 321, 342 Dendrocitta, 13 Cormorants & Darter, 371 ff. Cotton Teal [काणूक, गुरगुर्रा, गंगरेल, घर्घरक, Desert Stork [ मरुबक ], 326 • तृणहंस, हरितहंस]. 157, 450 Coucal [=कुक्कुभ, कुंभ, कुंभार कुकड़ी, कुंभकार कुक्कुट, कुलालकुलकुभ, महोक], 71, 137 138 139 Devakūta, as the breeding-place of Suparna, 203 Dewar, Douglas, 68, 78, 170, 345, 462 Dhanvantari, 49, 84, 96, 99, 107, 143, 176, 189, 259, 430 Dhārtarāstra, 428 Dhwankjaurati (a person), 388 Dicruridae, 49. Dipper [जलचर, वज्जुल ], 43 Diver [ वचुलक ], 463 seemingly innocent Index Dodo [-द्विमुख भारण्ड, बेलाघर], 398, 399 Domestic Cock [महायोगी, विशोक, स्वस्तिक], 18. Domestic Pigeon [गृहरूपोत], 250 Donald, 198, 204, 205, 207, 210, 231 Dove [-कपोत, घुग्धी, टुटरू, पण्डुक, पड़की, पाण्डु, Falconer [स्पैनिक ], 217, 226 पाण्डुकपोत ], 24, 27, 138, 250, 257H. Falconidae, 199 Dove, as a messenger of evil, 250 Doves, different species of, 257 Drongo [अंगारक, कलिकार, कलिंग, कुलिंग, कालका, कालचटक, गोप्रेरक, जल्पक, धनसु, धूम्याट, भुजंग, भूग], 41, 62, 63, 99, 131, 132 Drongo Cuckoo [-fr], 130, 131, 132 Drongos, 62 ff. Drongo Shrikes, 62 'Drop-craving' Bird [स्तोकक], 134 Duck [क्षुद्रहंस हंसक ], 422 Ducks, 95, 299, 447ff. Dunbird [रक्तमूर्द्धन् ], 457 Duncan, F. Martin, 204 Dung-Vulture [गोबर गीध] 192, 193 Duryodhana, 63 Dusky Horned Owl [भासोलूक, बायसान्तक उलूक] 180, 181 182 E Eagle [बलज, गूध, चिल्ल, श्येन], 175, 176 188, 189, 199, 200, 210 Eagle Owl [-मिगदोरी, श्येनोलूक, शुशुलूक, हुइ. इहुचील] 182, 183 Eagles and Falcons, 198ff. Eastern Carrion Crow, 7 Eastern Common Crane [ौंच ], 314, 321 Eastern Fantail Snipe [गोभण्डीर], 366 Eastern Goosander [ मणितुण्डक कारण्ड, कारण्डव], 459 Eastern Great Bustard, 326 Eastern Grebe [कर्णवाल वजुल], 462 Eastern Hooded Crow Eastern Purple Heron [ नीलकीच], 401 Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher, 56 Eastern Red-legged Falcon, 235 Eastern White Eye [मल्लिकाक्ष ] 458 Eastern Wood Pigeon, 256 Edict of Aśoka, 140 Egret [-बलाका, बलाकिका ], 2 Emerald Cukoo [ हरीतक], 130 131 Emerald Dove [-रक्तकण्ठ, रक्तग्रीव, शुकच्छवि, शुरुच्छविकपोत, हारीत], 131, 257, 259 260, 261,262, 263 Erigate Bird, 378 European,/Asiatic Cuckoo 128 469 F Fairy Bluebird [-नीलच्छवि, नीलचटक ], 71, 138 Falcon [श्येन ], 199, 210, 222, 223, 225 Falconry, a practitioner of [श्येनजीविन्], 216 Falconry, art of [श्येनम्पाता], 204, 205, 206, 225 Falcons, 221ff. Falcons & Hawks, 206, 215 ff. Fantail Flycatcher [लट्वा], 35, 53, 54, 90 Female Bee-eater [ कीर्शा, कीर्वा, पिप्पिका, शाङ्गिका शाङ्ग], 149, 151 Female Bustard Quail [कृणि ], 291 Female Flamingo [बलाका, मेघानन्दा], 411, 418 Female Great Hornbill [यवगण्डिका], 160 Female Grey Partridge [ कपिञ्जली, शकुन्तिका], 58 Female Peregrine [-अमृतवाका ], 225 Female Shikra [तुन्ना, सञ्चाण]], 242 Female Yellow Wagtail [-बजरीटी, गोलत्तिका ], 105 Fied-Kites, 247 Fighting Cock, 272 Finches & Buntings, 92ff. Finch Larks [ अरण्यचटक, कुज, कुब्ज, धूसरचटक, भूमिशय, स्वल्पसंचर], 95, 110, 111 Finley, W. L.., 347 Finn, F., 310, 314, 320 Finsch's Starlings, 85 Fire-breasted Flower-peckers, 116. Fire-tailed Yellow-backed Sunbird, 114 Fishing, 198 Fishing Eagle [उत्कोश, उत्कोशकुरर, कालकुरर, मछमंगा, मछरंगा, मत्स्यरंक ], 155, 185, 186, 187, 213, 215, 342 Fish Owls [- जिह्वाक्ष, नखाशी], 175, 180, 181 [ नीलास्य काक], 2 Fish Owls & Horned Owls [= प्रावारकर्ण, प्रावारकर्ण उलूक ], 180, 181 Flamingo [=अरुणकञ्च, क्रुञ्च, बकी, बलाक, बलाका, मृणालकण्ठ, समर्ढेक, बरहंस हंसावर], 136, 311, 408, 410, 412, 413, 417 Flamingo, as an auspicious bird [भद्रपक्षी], 420 Flamingos, 408ff. Flamingos in V-form, 421 Florican [बारट], 325 Flower- Peckers, 116 Flycatcher [-अर्जुनक, कुलिंग], 56, 57, 92 Flycatchers, 53 ff. Flycatcher Warbler [चटिका], 53, 68 470 Flying Fox [-बगुला], 39 Forest Eagle Owl [बहदूप, महाकौशिक, महापक्षी], 176, 181, 182 Fork-tailed Shrikes, 62 Francis, H. T., 52 Francolin Partridges [कुतित्तिर], 283 Frog-bird, 171 Frogmouths, 172 G Gadwall [-मसिन, मैल], 454 Gannet (or Booby), 376 Garganey (or Blue-winged Teal), 455 Garuda, 199 Geese, 95, 426, 435ff. Gelochelidon Nilotica, 347 Gigantic (or Adjutant) Stork, 992 Glossy Tbis, 981 Gold-crests [-चटकिका, चटिका],70 Golden-backed Woodpecker, 120 Golden Bush Robin [मनःशिलचटक], 52 Golden Crows, 10 Golden Eagle [[गरुत्मत् गुरुमार, प्रश्येन, ताइये, दिवाकर, महामुक्तक, महावीर, महासुपर्ण, मेषहृत् बच्चविष्कंभ, विशालाक्ष, विष्णुधर्मा, बैनतेय, शाल्मल, शाल्मलीस्थ, शिलानी, स्वर्णपक्ष, सुपर्णं, सुवर्णपन], 72, 73, 74, 192, 195, 198 199, 200, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 225, 231, 239 Golden-fronted Chloropsis, 33 Golden Oriole [ हारिद्रव], 72,75, 76, 104 Golden Oriole & Golden Eagle [सुपर्ण ], 72, 73, 74 Gold-fronted Black Finch, 94 Gold-headed Roller [स्वर्णचूड], 17 'Googely', 13 Goosander [जाली, निहन्नी, मणितुण्ड कारण्डव ], 449, 458, 459 Goose, 196 Goshawk [चत्रांगवाज, पदेक, प्राजिक, बलाकांक्ष- वाज, बाज, वाजि, वाजिक, बाजी], 218, 219, 220, 221, 235, 236, 238 Govindarāja, 214 Grackle [-पुरुषवाक्शारि, मदनसारिका, रोपणाका, वरण्डा, शारिका], 81, 82, 87 Grackles or Hill-Mynas, 81ff. Grass Owl [= कटप्रूडलूक], 150, 173, 174 Grass Finch, 69 Grass-Quit, 69 Great Black-headed Gull, 339 Great Bustard [ कुरण्टक or गुरण्डक, गुरुकण्ठ, गोध्बेडक, गोनर्द, वारण, विदोगय] 325, 326, 327,328 Great Crested Grebe [कण्ठपाल, कण्ठवाल, गरवाल, शिवहंस], 969, 462 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Greater Spotted Eagle [कलिजंग, जियाघर, जियान्तक, जीवहर], 209 Great Himalayan Barbet, 123 Great Hornbill [-कुडांग, कुड्रांग, खट्वाङ्ग, खट्वाङ्गक, पन्थालक, हिवांग ], 160 Great Horned Owl [हुई], 181 Great Indian Bustard, 326 Great Slaty Woodpecker, 119 Great Stone Plover, 932 Great White-bellied Heron [महाक]. 402 Great White Grane [कुरङ्कर सारस, पुष्कर or श्येन सारस, पुष्कराह्न, महाकौंच, श्येनाध्य], 312, 919,921 Grebe [वजुलक ], 49, 463 Grebes, 461ff. Green-billed Malkoha, 137 Green Finch, 33 Green Imperial Pigeon, 254 Greenland Falcon [हंसवाज], 218, 219 Green Magpie [-चिरिकाक], 8, 14, 20 Green Pigeon [-हरितांग, हरिताल, हरिद्वांग, हरियल, हारिद्रक, हारिल, हारीत, हारीतक, वर्धमान कपोत ], 131, 252, 253, 255, 257, 260 Greenshank [टिमटिमा], 968 Grey Geese, 436 Grey-headed Fishing Eagle, 214, 215 Grey-headed Myna, 87 Grey Heron [-कडू, वारिफडू], 219, 224, 400, 401 Grey Lag [कलहंस, करड्स, घितराज मोगल, राजहंस, सोनाइंस], 426, 496, 497 Grey Lag Goosc, 427, 436 Grey-necked Buntings, 96 Grey-necked & Ortolan Buntings [-जमजोहरा, दलचिड़ी, भर्रा, भारीट, यवहर, शैथिरचटक, हुर्रा, 96 Grey Partridge [कपिज्जल, गौरतित्तिर, जाल] 58, 99, 289 Grey Quail [फालखेला, बड़ा बटेर ], 285 Grey Tit [-बल्गुलिश्यामा, श्यामावलगुलि ] 21 22 Grey Wagtail, 105 Grey Wagtail, Black-headed & Yellow- headed Wagtails [-गोपपुल, गोपापुल, गोपुत], 105 Grey-winged Black-bind [कलविडू, कस्तूरी, कालचटक ] 31, 49 Grey-winged Black-bird or Magpie Robin [कुलिंगक], 93 Grey & Yellow-cheeked Tits, 21 Grifilth, 18, 59, 74 75 76, 153, 157, 190, 223 Griffon [पाण्ड, सम्पाति], 188, 190, 191, 196 Ground-Cuckoos, 197 Index Ground-Pipits, 107 Ground-Thrushes, 44 Gryllotalpa, 38 Gull [-उत्कोशकुरर, कुरर, बरशब्दकुरर, डमर ढामरा, देवट्टी, वीचीकाक, समुद्रकाक], 186, 341, 342, 343 Gull-billed Tern, 347 H Hafiz 35 ●Haired Cattle Tom-bird', 64 Harmsadeva, S Harpy Eagle (of the Philippines), 197 Harrier [प्रतिष्ठान ], 247 Harriers, 242 ff. Hawk [-पालङ्क, प्राजिक, श्येन, हापन, हापित] 41, 199, 216, 236 Hawk Cuckoo [-अत्यूह, कपिजल, चातक, तज्जल, दात्यूह, धनाख, घाराट, पपीहा बघ, वर्षत्रिय, वापीह, वृषारख] 93, 127 130 131, 132, 133, 136, 137, 140, 168, 169 Hawk Eagle [गुध, शशब्नी, शशधाती, शशाद, शशाद-जयेन ], 199, 210, 211, 220, 221 Hawk- Eagles Serpent-Eagles & Buzzard Eagles, 210ff. Gulls, 338ff. 234, 235 Gyrfalcon [= कालक बाज, कृष्णसंस्थान ], 218 Himalayan Snow-cock [ ककुभाकार, कबुक, कपिश वित्तिर, बरेठा, वरिष्ठतित्तिरि, स्थलकुक्कुभ ], 219 Hawking, 204, 216, 217, 218, 221, 232, 247, 330, 985 Hawking birds, 225 Hawks, 235ff. Hemacandra 8, 22, 24, 25, 30, 40, 45, 47, 57, 65, 88, 105, 109, 197, 199, 179, 193, 196, 216 Heron [कृशचञ्चू तापस, निशान्तक], 95 223, 232, 400, 405 Herons, Egrets & Bitterns, 400ff. Hill Maina [-सारिका], 141 142 Hill Myna, 76 Hill Partridges, 282 Hinmalayan and Finsch's Starlings [-तलपक, पाण], 85 Himalayan and Indian Grey Drongos [-नीलफिंगा], 63 Himalayan Barred Owlet [बड़ा डुण्डुल] 178 Himalayan Brown Wood Owl, 178, 180 Himalayan Guckoo, 127, 129 Himalayan Golden Eagle [[गरुड़, तार्क्ष्य, बैनतेय, सुपर्ण], 198, 199 Himalayan Grey-headed Fishing Eagle [[- निशाकर ] 215 Himalayan & Indian Skylarks [-ब्राह्मीचटी, भारती], 108 Himalayan Jay, 15 Himalayan Jungle Grow, 7 Himalayan Kestrel [-खैरमटिया, नारजी], 232 471 - Himalayan Nutcracker, 11 Himalayan Rod-legged Falconet [-मुट्ठी], 139, 283, 284 Himalayan Treepie, 12 Himalayan Whistling Thrush [कस्तूरा], 48, 52, 102 Himalayan Whistling Thrush & White Wag- tail [-श्रीक], 102 Wood Owl [= रक्तनासिक, Himalayan बनास]], 177 Hobby [-चिरान्तक, पक्षकलिका], 221, 232 Hobby Falcon, 221 Hodgson's Broad-bill, 118 Hodgson's Hawk-Eagle, 210, 211 Hodgson's Imperial Pigeon 254 Hodgson's Pied Wagtail [कर्कराक्ष, कर्करोग, कणाटीन, कलाटीन, खंजबेल, भद्रनामा, मिथुनी, मीनाम्रीण, रतनिधि, 106 Honey-Bird, 114 Honey-Buzzard [मधुहा ], 199 Honey-Guide, 126 Hooded Crow [ग्रामीण काक, नीलास्य काक], 4, 6, 20 Hooded Crane [ श्वेतमूर्धन् लक्ष्मण, श्वेतमस्तक लक्ष्मण], 318, 319, 321 Hoopoe [कटकुटो, कठाकु, कठारू, कु-कुटूटक, कु-कुट्ठक, कुठाकु, बुट-बढ़ई, पत्थरफोड़, पुतप्रिय, सुतार, हुदहुद], 22, 162 Hoopoes, 162 ff. Hooting Owl [=कुम्भोलूक, कुलाल, कौशिक, पूक, पेच, पेचक], 198, 176, 177, 179, 180, 261 Hooting Owls, 179ff. Hornbill [एकाङ्गवरक, प्रियात्मज, मातृनिन्दक, व्याग्धीनस, वाघजस], 159, 160, 161, 162 Hombills, 159ff. Horned Owls, 180, 181 Horned Pheasants, 279 Horse Sacrifice, 40 Houbara [तिलमयूर ], 925, 329 House-Crow [-काक, गृहकाक, ग्रामीणकाक, ध्यायस, ध्वांक्ष, बलिपुष्टकाक, भस्मछविकाक, वायस], 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 85, 127 House- Martins 100 Howe Sparrow [कामचारी, कामुक, कालकंठ, कुलिंग, कुलिंगक, गृहकुलिंग, गृहनीड, ग्रामचटक, चित्रपृष्ठ, नीलकंठ, बलिभुक्चटक, वृषायण], 46, 49, 53, 92, 93, 167 472 House-Swallows, 167 House Swift [- चरिल्ली, चिचिक, चिचिका, बतासी, बैगनकुटी, व्यङ्गिनकुटी, वाताशिन] 166, 168, 169 Hume, 105, 123, 161, 245, 285, 288, 299, 334, 391, 420, 423 Humming Birds (of America), 114 Hutton, 245 Ibis [खेगमन ], 9, 95, 381, 985 Icelander [महारावणबाज ], 218, 219 Imperial Eagle, 73, 201, 206, 207 Impeyan Pheasant [ इंद्राम, चितवई, चित्रबर्हण, चनबहिण, नीलमोर, मयूरक, मयूरकुक्कुट, मुनाल ] 257, 271, 277, 278 Inauspicious bird [ अनिष्ट विहा], 942 Indian Black-crested Baza, 248 Indian Black Eagle, 209 Indian Black-gorgeted Laughing Thrushes, 29 Indian Brown Hawk Owl [ कालपेचक, कृष्णपेचक ], 179 Indian Crane [ लक्ष्मण, सारस ], 312 Indian Crested Hawk Eagle [-वाजराज], 211 Indian Crested Honey Buzzard [मधूहा, श्याम]. 248 Indian Cuckoo [दुन्दुभि ] 129 Indian Grackle, 25 Indian Great Horned-Owl, 180 Indian Grey Drongos, 63 Indian Grey Tit [ सन्ज़रोशन, रामगंगरा], 21 Indian Hair-crested Drongo [केश्य, केशराज, केसराज, केसिया], 63, 64 Indian Hobby, 231 Indian Jungle Grow [ काक, कृष्णकाक ] 7 Indian Koel, 2 Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo, 64 Indian Little Brown Dove [छोटी पड़की], 257 Indian Loriquet [पर्णशुक, पशुक, पुवक, पुत्रिका, पुलगुक, भेदाशी], 144 Indian Necklaced Laughing Thrushes, 29 Indian Pipits, 107 Indian Pitta [-चित्रक, नौरंग ], 117 Indian Red-breasted Paroquet [-किकिरात शुरू, श्येतशुक], 144 Indian River Tern, 947 Indian Robin [कपोतको, कुलिंगक, कृष्णिका, चातकपोत, चातकशिशु, देवचकली, देवोश्यामा, पुलिका, पोतकी, पोदकी, श्यामा, शकुंतबालक ], 44, Birds in Sanskrit Literature 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 90 Indian Roller [-अपराजित, किकी, किकीदीवि, चलपुच्छ, चाय, नीलकण्ठ, नीलग्रीव, नीलाङ्ग, पुन्यदर्शन, मणिकण्ठ, महायोगी, माजल, राजविहङ्गम, विशोक, स्वर्णचूड, स्वस्तिक, हेमतुण्ड ], 17, 18, 22 Indian Rufous Turtle Dove [सामधूषू] 257 Indian_Sand Martin [ कुटिट्ठसक, नकुटि, नहिकुटि], 99 Indian Scarlet-backed Flower-peckers, 116 Indian Shag, 371 Indian Stone Plover, 332 Indian Tawny Eagle [उद्दीपक, गोमायु, पिच्छवाण भयङ्कर रणपक्षी, रणमत, रागपक्षी, रागर, श्येन, श्रृंगाल, स्थूलनीड ], 208 Indian Tern [ पुष्करसाद], 94 Indian Whiskered Term, 346 Indian White-eyed Buzzard Eagle [पुण्डरी- काक्ष], 212 Indian Wire-tailed Swallow, 99 Indian Yellow-backed Sun-bird, 114 Indo- Chinese Sparrow Hawks, 239 Tora [-मधुक, शुकिका, श्रीवद, सुकरिका], 31, 50 J Jacanas [कोपी] 304ff. Jackdaw [-चीरीकाक, चोरिकाक, चौरिकाक, पंचमकाक, सूक्ष्मास्यकाक ], 9, 4, 8, 14, 15, 20 Jackdaw of Kashmir, 2 Jamal, 60 Jangalah (animals and birds occupying dry zoncs), 286 Japanese Sparrow Hawk, 239 Jayanta, 3 Jays [-वनचाय ], 14, 20 Jays & Rollers, 15ff. Jehangir, 900, 316 Jerdon, 49, 55, 59, 64, 129, 205, 213, 294, 235, 242, 288 Jinasena, 129 Jungle and/or Carrion Grow [=काक, काकोल, कृष्णकाक, ध्वाक्ष, वनकाक], 7, 11, 20 Jungle Babbler [भूसारिका, हहोलिका], 28, 29, 30, 84 Jungle Bush Quails [ गैरिकलाव], 286, 287 Jungle Grow [कृष्णकाक, ध्याडस, वनकाक ], 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 127 Jungle-Fowl [=चमंचूड, ताम्रचूडकुक्कुट ], 271 Jungle-Fowls & Pheasants, 271 ff. Jungle Myna [= जाण्टसारिक ], 86 Juvenile Goshawk [=चकाङ्गवाज, बलाकाशवाज], 237 Jyotirlávama, 6 Index K Kale, M. R., 136 Kalidasa, 121, 135, 250, 323, 421, 446 Kalij Pheasants [ कालशकुक्कुट, रक्तवतमं, रक्तवत्मक ], 275 Kapota, Kinds, of, 251 Karmarkar, R. B., 136 Kashmir and Black-rumped Magpies [-काल- कूट ], 20 Kashmir Roller [-चितवाज, नीलांगचाय] 16, 17, 20 Kautilya, 170, 401 Kayah (or Swamp Partridge) [-कोइरा, कयार], 283 Kelava, 142, 144 Kestrel [अनल, आकाशयोगिनी, कण्ठनीडक, दिशाचक्षु, निमेष, रङ्गण, रङ्गणश्येन, लोहाण्डी, लोहाण्डी-शकुनि, संगण सौति], 155, 220, 232, 239, 234 King- Crow [-धूम्याट, फिङ्गा], 72, 199 Kingfisher [-किकीवक, जलमद्गु, झम्पाशी, मछमंगा, मणीचक, मत्स्य मीनर सुचित्रक], 13, 18, 147, 155, 156, 157, 158, 186 Kingfishers, 155ff. Kirātas, 30 Kirke Swann, H., 205 Kite [-चिल्ल], 41, 234 Kites, 242ff. Koel [कोकिल, पिक], 128 Koklas Pheasant, 276 L 473 Large Imperial Sand Grouse [क] 265 Large Indian Paroquet [ राजशुरू, शतपत्नशुरू], 143 Large Indian Parakeet / Peacock / Wood- pecker [शतपन ], 119 Large Green-billed Malkoha, 140 Large Grey Babbler [feforer], 29, 30 Large Hawk Cuckoo [चातक], 130 Large Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha, 140 Large Indian Parrot [-त्रिवर्णराजि], 118 Large Owl [-पाक, पेचक ], 157, 183 Large Owls, as birds of bad omen, 173 Large Pied Crested Cuckoo [ त्रिशंकु, दिवौकस, सारंगचातक], 104 Laughing Gull, 339 Laughing Thrushes and Babblers, 28ff. Leishra, 55 Leopard [-द्वीपिन्]], 11 Lesser Adjutant Stork, 243 Kranica-vytha, 310 Lesser Flamingo, 408 Krspaśakuni (all black Punjab & Tibetan Lesser Florican (or Likh), [ खिलखिल्ल, Ravens), 1 लिय], 330 Kşemendra, 25, 59, 77, 79, 123, 427 Lesser Whistling Teal, 450 Kusumadeva, 142 Libertine [-पांसुल] 129 Likh, 330 Large Pied Wagtail [काकच्छदिखंजन, कालकंठ, नीलकंठ ], 102 103 Large Racket-tailed Drongo [-भीमराज, भगराज ], 64, 65, 66, 144 Large Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha [= अंगहेतुक]], 140 Larger Hooting Owls [ कुम्भोलूक ], 176 Larger Owls [ हरिलोचन ], 177 Large Spotted Nutcracker, 11 Large Sea-birds (Sea-Gulls & Others) [समुद्रकाक ], 937 Large Whistling Teal, 450 Lark [-कुब्जचटक, दबकचिड़ी, दुरी, भारद्वाज, व्याघाट], 50, 98, 99, 111 Lark Duck, 222 Larks, 108ff. Lac Insect, 10 Laggar Falcon [रघट, लग्पड़, लग्न, लगर, लङ्गण]], 227 Lamb-Eagle, 194 Lamb-Vulture, 207 Lammergeyar (or Bearded Vulture) [-अलज, आज, भास], 195, 210 Lapwing (a kind of water fowl) [कोयष्टि, जलकुक्कुट, यष्टिक], 358 Large-crested Tern, 347 Large Cuckoo- Shrike, 117 Large Egret [ चेतावक, ज्येष्ठवलाका बफेरू, Little Grebe, 461 महाश्वेता], 56, 402 Lineated Barbet, 124 Lion Sparrow [मृगेन्द्रचटक], 222 Liothrix [-रोचिष्णु ], 32, 33 Little Barbet [-डिण्डिमाणवक], 129 Little Brown Dove [ कुंकुमधूम्प कपोत, धूसर कपोत ], 257, 258, 261 Little Bustard [कृशकण्ठ, सारंग ], 325, 328 Little Cormorants, 971 Little Dove, 24 Little Egret [-बलाकिका ], 403 Little Golden Eagle (Peregrine) [सुपर्ण, सुपर्णक], 225 Little Grey Heron, 406 Little Peacock [-मयूरक ], 277 Little Ringed Plover [ खजनिका, खज्जानिका, राजपुलिका, राजभट्टिका, सर्वपी, हापुतिका ], 334, 357 474 Little Stint [-जलर, जनलोभिन्, पनलोहा ], 368 Little Sweet-voiced Bird [ क्षुद्रवल्गुलि बुटुक बल्गुलि ] 21 Lockley, R. M., 339 Lokesh Chandra, 52 Long-billed Ringed Plover [ राजपुत्रिका, राजभट्टिका], 337 Long billed Vulture [शकुनगु] 188, 191 Long-eared Owl [शशोलूक ], 179 Long-tailed Broad-bill. 118 Lord Buddha, 50 Loriquet, 143. Lowther, E.H.N., 244 Ludwig, 74 Luggar Falcon [लग्न, लगर] 205, 220, 225 M Macdonell & Keith (authors of Vedic Index), 76 Macqueen's Bustard [ तिलूर, तिलमयूर ] 329 [ Magapodes, 290 Magha, 145 Magpie, superstition about, 131 Magpics [कूटपक्षी], 11ff. Magpie Robin [-अश्वक, अश्वकधीबद्, अश्वाच्य, कालकण्ठ कलविङ्क, दध्यक, दहियक, दाधिक, नीलकण्ठ, श्रीवपक्षी], 18, 44, 46, 47, 49, 30, 51, 52, 86, 93, 103 Magpie Robin & Shama [-कालकण्ठ कलबिक, कृष्णग्रीव ] 94 Magpie Robin, Shama & Blackbird [कल- विक]], 93 Mahendra, 104 Maina [बचा]], 142 Malabar Whistling Thrush सीकारम्]], 52 Malayagiryācārya, 128 Male Asiatic and Indian Sparrow-Hawks [-बेटा], 237 Male] [Bee-eater] [ शाक], 151 Male Bengal Florican [चरट], 329 Male Besra Hawk [धूति], 237 Male Bustard Quail [ Male Cuckoo [पंसुल] 129 Male Gorhawk [जुर्रा, जूरा]. 221. 237 कुमारक ]. 291 Male Hawk (or Male Palcon) [ तोणक, द्रोणक], 237 Male Red Turtle Dove [सूलकण्ठकपोत ]. 264 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Malkohas, 129,137, 140 Malkohas and Sirkeers [कैरात, गेलाट ], 140 Mallard Duck [= नीररुगी, नीलग्रीवक, नीलसिर, लिलगही], 69, 88, 453 Mallinātha, 419 Male Shikra [तोणक, द्रोणक, टुना, टोना], 220, 237, 242 Mandapála, story of, 151 Mandapala & Sarngika, Story of 289 Mango-bird, 77, 78 Mango-Cuckoo, 77 Manu, 54, 84, 96, 161 Marbled Teal [हिंस] 457 Maroon backed Kite, 242 Maroon Oriole, 72, 79 Marshall, 285 Moorhen [ कृष्णा जलकुक्कुटी], 292, 293 Mountain Quail [गिरिवर्तक, गिरिशा], 282 Mouse-bird [ चिकुरचटक, चूआसराई], 40 Mud (or Potter) Wasp [गृहकारी], 89 [- श्रीवद, Munal [ मयूरकुक्कुट ], 257 Munias [चटिका, पुतक, पुत्तिका, पुत्रिका, पोतक ], 89ff. Marsh Harier [सार], 247 Martins and Swallows, 98 ff. Masked Finfoot, 303 Medhātithi, 54 Merlin Palcon [तुरमती, दुरुमती], 221, 332, 235 Michelson, 77 Minivets [सजनी, सहेली, सात सायली]. 58ff. Molecricket, 48 Monal, 203, 271, 279 Monier-Williams, 5, 9, 11, 12, 16, 23, 25, 29, 36, 44, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 88, 94, 96, 100, 104, 112, 119, 120, 131, 135, 138, 144, 149, 150, 152, 157, 169, 171, 174, 180, 181, 191, 193, 196, 211, 213 Monitor Lizards [गोधा], 41 Montagu's Harrier [कलासक, गिरगिटमार, पत्तई], 247 Mute Swan [-पाकड्स, मल्लिक], 423. 427, 431 Myna group [ हहोलिका] 28, 29, 30 N Någananda, 201 Nala & Damayanti, 432 Nandimuskha yantra (a pair of Surgical forcepa). 449 Nārada, 5 Neophron [ भास, भासक], 191 Neophron Vulture [पोष्ठ कुक्कुट], 29, 199 Index Nepal Kalij Pheasants, 275 Ostrich [उष्ट्रय ] 281 Nepal Yellow-backed Sun-bird [सुबर्णपुष्प], Owl [-उलूक, पेचक, प्रावारकर्ण], 176. 177 114 Owlet [ उलूकचेटी, क्षुद्रोलूक, टुण्डुल, पाकोलूक, पिंगला शिक], 46, 176, 177 R. P Nerium Odorum, 35, 37 Newton, 457 Night Heron [क्याक, कुकराई, नक्कीच रजनीबक, वाक], 405 Nightjar [ संधी चिड़िया, छप्पा, छापो, छिप्पक, छिप्पिका, दद्दू, दर्बुर, नपता नप्तूका, नपरका], 170 ff. Nilakantha (a commentator), 101 Niltava Flycatcher [-नीलचटक, नीललट्वा], 53 Noisy Common Owlet [ववयि ], 124 Noisy Kingfisher [दलेला किलकिला], 157 Non- Parasitic Cuckoos, 137 ff. Norman, H. C., 21 Northera Bay Owl [ ताम्रेलूक, विडाल], 178, 179 Northern Bronzed Drongo [-छोटा भुजंगा], 63 Northern Crested Goshawk [ चुरियारी, चुलाङ्क वेसर, चूलिकाङ्ग, जमलकण्ठी, यवलकण्ठिक], 238, 241 Northern Green Barbet & Lineated Barbet [-कुटरू, कुटुर] 124 Northern Indian Stone Chat [कालापिद्दा, पिता], 45 Northern Long-billed Vulture [सागुन] 191 Nutcrackers [ फलप्रिय काक, सारंग काक ], 11, 20 Nuthatches [ कपोती, कपोतिका, कन्दगलक, कन्दली करक, कवक, शिलीन्धी], 24 ff. O Oily Starling [-तिलोरी, तेलिया मैना ], 85 Open-bill Stork [-अवभञ्जन, घोडू, षोङ्ग, घोंगक, घोंपल, शंबूकमंजन, शामूकमंग], 995, 396 Orange bellied Chloropsis [पक्षगुप्त, पत्रगुप्त ] ]. 33 Oriote] [अंबकमरी, अंबाकपिपीलक, अंबाकपिलक, अंबाकपिलिक, अंबाकपीलक, अंबाकपीलिक, काञ्चन, चामीकर, पिज्जाल, पिपीलक, पिपीलका, पिपीलग, पिपीलय, पिलक, पिलग, सुप्रीवकाञ्चन] 77, 78, 79, 80 Oriole, Red-breasted Paroquet, Hill Myna [-पीतभद्र शुक], 76 Orioles, 72 ft. Ortolan Buntings [जमजोहरा, भारीट, शशिर- 475 चटक]]], 96 Osprey [ फुर, कुरल, पंकजित, मछमंगा, मछरंगा, मत्स्यनाशनकुटर, मत्स्यर खरिद् द्वीप, सारस], 155, 185 Ft. Osprey Eagles, 199 Painted Partridge [ चित्रपक्ष]], 283 Painted Sand Grouse [विककर], 265 Painted Snipe [-ओहरी चाहा ], 307ff. Painted Stork [- कठसारंग, काचाल, काचालवक, काष्ठसारंगबक, पिंगलखग, पिगलाक्ष, बृहद्धक]. 395 Palakāpya, 18, 412 Pale and Montagu's Harriers [गिरगिटमार, पत्त], 247 Pale Brown Swift [-चमरू], 167 Pallas's Eagles [कङ्का] 229 Pallas's Fishing Eagle [-अलिक्लव, कङ्क जाष्कमद, प्रियापत्य, महाउत्कोश, मृग, हड़फोड़ा ], 195, 209, 213, 214, 229, 243, 244, 245 Palm Swift [- चामचिकि, चर्मचटी]. 167 Pandit, S. P., 136 Panini, 205 Paradise Flycatcher [-नन्दन, रज्जूदल, रज्जुवाल, श्वेतवनवासिन्] 14, 53, 55, 122 Paranjape, V. G., 136 Parasitic Guckoos [अन्यवाप, परपुष्ट, परभृत् ]. 127 Pariah Kitc [ शकुनि, ], 1 Parra Jacana [- टिटिभ, टिटिमक, शिखरी]. 358 Parrot (or Paroquet), [किंकिरात, चिमि, चिमिक, चिरि, तोता, पोपट, मञ्जुपाठक, रक्ततुण्ड, वस्तुण्ड, वच, शुक, सुग्गा, विकेतु 14, 23, 118, 140, 141, 142, 143 Parrot-bills [- राजिणुक, शुकपुच्छक], 118 Parrot-bills & Suthoras, 23 Parrot-Crow [-चिरिकाक], 14 Partridge [तित्तिर], 157 Patañjali, 430 Peacock [ कालकण्ठ, नीलकण्ठ, नीलांग, बहिन्, बहुलचीव, महामयूर, मयूर, राजसारस, शितिकण्ठ, सर्पोरि, सारंग], 18, 49, 55, 119, 196, 158, 206, 229, 270, 277, 293, 325 Peacock, albino variety of [अर्जुन]. 270 Peacock, as vehicle of Kārtikeya, 279 Peacock & Hawk Cuckoo [अस्यूह ], 293 Peacock, Magpie Robin & White Wagtail [-नीलकण्ठ ], 17 Peacock Pheasant [जीवजीवक ] 270, 274, 281 Peafowl, 270 H. Peafowls, Jungle fowls, Pheasants & Quails, 268 If. 476 Peahens, 591 "Peckers" [प्रतुद-वर्ग ], 28 Pelican [-केसरी, जलसिंह, पुण्डरीक, महाप्लव, 370 महापक्षी, शरभ ], 231, Pennant, Thomas, 102 Penzer, N. M, 22 Peregrine [क्षिप्रश्येन, धूमीका, बहरी, शालिव], 210, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 226 Persian Nightingale, 35 Perusári, 7, 157, 167, 174 Petrels [वीचीकाक ], 979 Pharaoh's Chicken, 192 Phasianus gallus, 198 Pheasant [-मयूरग, रक्तवरमक, वीजन], 139, 203, 207, 273, 277 Pheasant-tailed Jacana [जलमंजोर, जल शिखण्डिन्, मोवा], 304, 905 Pica, 14 Piculet [- कीचक ], 120 Pied Crested Cuckoo [चातंक, दिवौकस्, सारंग चातक], 127, 130, 131, 134, 135 Pied Harrier [ अबलक पत्तई], 247 Pied Kingfisher [कपदिक, काचाक्ष, कौड़ियाला, क्षत्रक], 155, 219, 234 'Pig-bird' [पंदिजित्ता], 30 Pigeon [-कण्ठीरव, पारावत, प्रासादकुक्कुट ], 24, 27, 137, 203, 207, 226, 251, 260, 265 Pigeons, 252ff. Pigeons & Doves, 250ff. Pink-footed Goose [कलहंस ], 437 Pink-headed Duck [ रक्तशीर्षक, लालसिर], 449 Pintail Duck [ दीर्घपुच्छ, द्विगुच्छ, शल्यहंस शलांच, शंकुपन, सींकपर], 455 Pin-tailed & Wedge-tailed Green Pigeons. [-कोकयु, कोकदेव, कोकला, चक्कोक], 254 Pipistrelle, 21 Pippit [-दुलिका, तुलिका, चर्चरी, स्फोटिका], 49 107, 108, 127 Pitta [=पद्मपुष्प, पिकाङ्क ], 117 Plain-coloured & Tickell's Flower-peckers [चटिका], 116 Piod Myna [-कुणपी, गुचलक्त, गूयलक्त, सात्विक, चित्रांगी, विट्सारिका, हहोलिका ], 85, 86, 87, Racket-tailed Drongo [भृंगराज ], 25, 62 193 Radcliff, Col. D., 72 Pied Wheat-ear, 44 Raddy, R. B., 136 Plaintive Guckoo [चातक, विशंख, पाउस्या, पौस्या, वर्षप्रिय, वरिषात्रिय] 190, 131 Playful circling flight [ नादावतं] 454 Plovers, 357 H. Birds in Sanskrit Literature Purple Heron [[-करु, नीरगॉग, नीलकच ], 990, 402, 406 Pond-Heron (or Paddy-bird) [tafe, स्वल्पक ], 321, 402, 404, 405 Pratincoles [-विश्वका विषुवि, हापुत्रिका] 335 Prince Ayogrha, Story of, 212 Punjab Sirkeer Cuckoo [अंगहेतुक], 140 Purple Moorhen [-कलिम, कलीम, जलर, मंजूल दात्यह] 295, 298, 368 Purple Sun-bird [पुष्पंघय, फुलचुही, भूगोल, मधुकर, मधुप, मधुपखग, शकरबोरा] 99, 114, 115 Q Quail [गरुद्योधी, पांसुल, फालखेला, वर्तक, वर्तीर, वर्तीरिक, शकुन्त, शकुन्तक] 58, 109, 226, 285, 289 Quail and the Crow, Story of, 289 Quail-fighting as a royal sport, 289 Quail-like Sparrow [पोयवर्तिका मासवर्तिका ], 110 Quails or Bustard-Quails, 284 ff. "Qushq-ul-dagh" (Jehangir's name for coot), 300 R Ragozin, Z. A., 169 Rails and Grakes [अम्बु-कुस्फुटिका], 292 Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Cool, 292ff. Raja] [Rudradeva (of Kumaon), 217 Rajwade, V. K., 73 Rāma, as punisher of Jayanta, 3 Ramacandra (a commentator), 54, 89 Rasanidhi (Hindi Poet), 128 Raven [= आसुरकाकोल, काकोक, काकोल, कृष्ण- शकुन, दण्डकाक, द्रोण, द्रोणकाक, नीलखग, वृद्धकाक ], 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 20 Ravens, IE. Razorbill [ पनचिरा, शरारी] 351 Reed Warbler [-टिकटिकी, तूणचटिका, तृणमयूर, शरचटक], 69 Reed Weaver-bird [शरचटक, शरबया], 69 Reeve, 368 Red-billed & Yellow-billed Blue Magpies [-दीर्घदल, पूर्णकूट], 12, 14 Red-billed & Yellow-billed Chough, 101 Red-billed & Yellow-billed Magpies [पूर्ण कूट ], 20 Red-billed Blue Magpies [पूर्णकूट], 12, 14 Red-billed Chough [-लोहगुण्डकाकोल], 6, 10, 11 Index Red-billed Liothrix [ मंचुरा, नंदचिड़ा, नंदि- चटक], 32 Red-breasted Flycatchers, [चटकी, चटिका], 68 Red-breasted Paroquet [ पीतभद्रशुक], 76, 140, 144 Red crested Pochaurd [ रक्तचञ्चु, रक्तशीर्षक, सालचोंच, लालसिर] 457 Red Flying Squirrel [कंदली], 25 Red Goose [ बरहंस], 412 Red Hawk, 219 Red-headed Bull Finch [कलविक], 94 Red-headed Buntings [अन्नदूषक ] 95, 96 Red-headed Laughing Thrush [ कुंकुमचूडक कुंकुमार], 29 Red-headed Trogon [लोह, लोहपृष्ठ ] 164 Red Jungle Fowl [कवा, वनकुक्कुट] 139, 273 Red-Legged Crow, 10 Red Munia [-सट्वाका, लटुकिका, लालक, सुनार कलविङ्क, सेव्य, सेव्य कलविङ सेव्य चटक], 50, 53, 54, 69, 90, 91, 93 Redshank [-बटान, सूरमा], 368 Red-spotted Blue-throat [ नीलकण्ठ पिद्धा, नीलकण्ठी पिद्दा, श्यामकण्ठ ], 45, 49 Red Spur-fowl [ कुक्कुटक], 281 Red Starling, [ तेलिन], 86 Red Start, 44, 49, 107 Red Turtle Dove [ अरुणकपोत, ईटियाभूषू, काणकपोत, धूपूकृत् धूसरकपोत, सूखकण्ठकपोत], 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 263, 450 Ring Dove [-अपाण्डरकपोत, धवलकपोत, घवलपाण्ड, धोरपंडुक, धौलापण्डुक, सूखकण्ठकपोत ], 256, 257, 258, 261 477 Rook [ नशाक, नष्टकाक, सितनीलचञ्चुकाक ], 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 20 Rose-coloured Dove [ गुलाबी धूपू], 259 Rose & other Finches having red on the head [ रक्तशीर्ष ], 94 Rose Finch [ = रक्तशीयं कलविक], 50, 94 Rose-ringed Paroquet [ कठलसुग्गा, काष्ठशुक], 141, 143, 144 Rock Bush Quail [पांसुललाय ] 287 Rock Thrushes, 44 Roller [चाप, ], 16, 20, 146, 147, 157 158 Rollers & Jays [ चाष], 146 Rosy Minivets [सजनी, सहेली, सात सायली पाखी], 59 Rosy Pastor [ मधुसारिका, सुवर्णसारिका], 86 Ruby-check, 113 Ruby-throat [रक्तकण्ठ ], 48 Ruddy Sheldrake, [उपचकचकचक्रवाक चाह, सुर्खाब], 450 Rull [गखाल], 368 Rufous-fronted Wren Warbler [-चीहो-बीडू), 69 Rufous-necked and Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler [-कुरुबाहु ], 28 Rufous-necked Hornbill [वाणिस] 159, Red-vented Bulbul [ कलसिरी, कृष्णचूड, गोवत्सक, पेच, फ्रेंच, फैजातक ], 34, 36, 37, 57 Red-wattled Lapwing [-उत्पादशयन, टिटिभ, Saker [चरक, चरव, चरम, चर्ग], 221, 228 सदालूता], 81, 85, 957, 360 Red-whisked Bulbul [-गोवत्सक, पुष्पावतंसक ]. 34, 36, 37, 39 Salim Ali, 17, 62, 72, 74, 85, 86, 111, 124, 134, 144, 148, 156, 180, 234, 259, 316, 332, 346, 348, 391, 392, 411 Sand-Grouse] [[कुकल, भटकुनकुट, भटतीतर], 265ff. Red-winged Crested Cuckoo [किकिर], 130, 135, 196 Regan, T., 173 Ridgway, 347 160 Rufous-necked Laughing Thrushes [ कुरु- बाहुक, फाकार, वानकार], 28 Rufous Piculet [ कीचक ], 120 Rufous Short-toed Lark [बघेरा, बघेरी, व्याघाट, बर्तकी, बर्तिका, वतिचटक, वर्तक, वर्त्तका, वार्तीक ], 109 Rufous-throated Partridge [पिउरा], 282 Rufous Turtle Dove [लालपण्डुक], 257 S Sand Martin [भाण्डीक ], 98,99 Sandpipers [ जलर] 367, 366 Sarus ( Indian Crane) [ रक्तमस्तक लक्ष्मण, (सुस्वर) सारस ], 227 315, 319, 321 Sarus, as a pet bird of Royalty, 324 Sarvajiñanirayana (a commentator), 54, 89 Sāyana, 15, 18, 58, 59, 65, 73, 76, 85, 104, 142, 144, 150, 157, 169, 183, 190, 195, 200, 213, 214, 225, 321, 418, 456 Ring-tailed Sea-eagle [कंक, कालपृष्ठ कंक, प्रियापत्यकंक, मछकोरल, मछमंगा, मछरंगा, मत्स्य कुरर], 213 Robins, 45 Rock & Jungle Bush Quails [ बर्तीर, Scapteriscus (genus), 38 वर्तीरिक ], 286 Scarlet & Rose Finches [ कलविङ्क, रक्तशीर्ष, वरचटक ], 99 Scarlet Minivet [विष्युलिङ्गक ], 59 Scavengers of the Waters, 938 Scavenging Vulture [भास ], 246 Science of augury, 9, 381 478 Scimitar Babbler [-मणितुण्डक], 49 Scissorbill [पनचिरा, शरारी] 351 Scops Owl [-] ऊर्ध्वकर्णोलूक ] 178 "Scrapers" [विष्किर वर्ग ], 27 Screech Owl [ वयि] 124, 173 Sca-Bagle [-नागाजी ] 185, 186, 198, 201, 207 Secsee Partridge [उपचक्र ] 282 Serpent & Sea-Eagles [उरगाशन], 207 Serpent Eagle [ मालाय ], 207, 212, 226 Seton Gordon, 74 Seven Brothers, 30 "Seven Eagles", 200 Seven Gial-friends, 58 Seven Sisters, 30, 31, 59 Seven Sisters/Brothers, 60 200, Shaheen [श्येन ], 210, 218 Shaheen Falcon [-कुही, जावल, तक्ववी, घूमीका], 199, 220, 222, 223, 226 Shama [ कालकण्ठ कलविङ्ग कुमारी श्यामा, कृष्ण- पक्षी, कृष्णिका, श्यामा श्यामा कलविङ्क] 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 93, 94 Shastri, Harprasad, 231 Sheldrake [उपचक, चक्रवाक, सफेद सुर्खाब ], 450, 451 Sheldrake & Ruddy Sheldrake [चक्राह ], 450 Shikra [ द्रोणक, वासा, शिकारा], 220, 236, 237,238 Shikra Hawk [सञ्चाण, सिचान ] 220, 221 Short-billed Minivet [ विष्फुलिङ्गक ] 59 Short-cared Owl [काकरुक ], 179 Short-toed Eagle [-नागाशी, सपंचर, सर्पान्त, सर्पोरि, सांपमार]. 211 Short-toed Lark, [लट्वा], 35 Shoveller [-खजाक, खातहंस, खंतियाहंस] 456, 457 Shrike [सदूषक], 37 Siberian Jay, 15 Sibia [ श्रीवद]], 50 Silver-eared Mesia, 32 Singing Bush-Lark [अगिन, अगिनजित्ता, अग्निकण्ठ, कण्ठाग्नि, शकराट, चरचरा], 108, 110 Singing Hawk, 226 Sirkeer, 137, 140 Sirkeer Cuckoos [जंगली तोता], 140 Sitā, 3 Siva, in the form of a roller, 16 Skimmer [-आति, आरि, धवलस्कन्ध, घव, शराति, शरारि शरारी, हिल्ल] 352, 353, 450 Skimmer or Scissorbill, 351ff. Skuas [ समुद्रकाक], 337 Skully's Wood Owl [= कुलाल ], 180 Skylark [कृश, दुर्बल, भरद्वाज, भारती व्योमलासिका, Birds in Sanskrit Literature भारद्वाज, भारद्वाजी, ब्योमलासिका ], 50, 99, 108, 109, 110, 155 Slaty-headed Paroquet [-पीतचचूक], 143, 144 Slender-billed Gull, 339 Smaller Egret [-बलाका ], 403 Smaller Hawk [बेसरा, सिचाना ], 237 Smaller Parrot [राघू ], 143 Smaller Sparrow Hawks & Shikras [-gfir- फ], 236 Smaller Spotted Eagle [जियाधर, जीवहर, जीवान्तक], 209 Smallest Pariah Kite [शवलिका] (a bind of augury), 246 Small Green-billed Malkoha [-बामनकाकी ], 140 Small Minivets [ संजनी, सहेली, सातसायली पाखी], 59 Small Parrot [की, दुइयां ], 143 Small Tern or Ternlet [कुररिका], 348 Smew [काकतुण्डक कारण्डव, श्वेत कारण्डव ], 458, 459 Smew & Goosanders [ काकतुण्डक, श्वेत कारण्डव], 459 Smythies, 42, 68, 88, 102, 108, 120, 129, 165, 178, 181, 209, 233, 273, 288, 332, 391, 406 Snake-bird [ मद्गु], 371, 372 Snipe [कादायोंचा, चाहा, पीर], 366 Snow Cock [- ककुभ ], 139, 203, 207, 284 Snow Partridge [कपिञ्जल, जंगुरिया, तेजल तित्तिर, तेरतित्तिर], 284 Snow Pigeon [-श्वेत पारावत], 256 Snowy Owl [ पाकोलूक ], 179, 183 Solitary Wasp [गृहकारी], 89 Somadatta, Story of Prince, 189 Song- Finches, 142 Song-Sparrow [- कलविड वेश्मकुलिङ्ग], 94, 111, 167 Sooty Gull, 339 Southern & Northern Besra Sparrow-Hawks [बेसरा]], 239 Southern Bersa Hawk [शुद्धबेसर], 241 Southern Besra Sparrow Hawks (Male) [[[-धूति], 239 Southern Besra Sparrow-Hawks (Female) खंडबेसरा, खंडेसरा, बेसरा] 239 Sparrow [अश्वक, अश्वकचटक, चटक], 40, 45, 61, 92, 93 Sparrow Hawk [ कुलिङ्गका, बासा, वेसर], 199, 220, 236 Speckled Piculet [ कीचक ], 120 Spoonbill [दविदा], 380 Spot bill or Grey Duck [गुगरल, पर्षरक, रमुखी हंस ], 454 Spotted Deer [सारंग] 11 Index Spotted Dove [-चित्तरोख, चित्ररूपोत, चित्र- पक्षकपोत ], 257, 258, 261, 263 Spotted Munia [ तैलपक, तैलपायिका, तैलपायी, पारुष्ण, पुष्पभूषी, परोष्णी, मुनियां ] 85 89 Spotted Owlet [कृकालिका, खर्गला, पिंगचक्षु, पिंगला पिगलिका, पिगेक्षण ] 177, 178182 Spotted-winged Stare [ कुलीका, पुलि, पुली, Tailor-bird [-टुष्टुक, पुटिका, पुटिनी, पोटियक ], 68, 69 पुलीका, पूली, शरभी 1 82 83 Spur-winged Plover [-feefew], 357 82, 93, 201 Talking Myna (or Grackle) [ मदनसारिका], 81 Tawny Eagle [=गोसायु, श्रृंगाल ], 73, 200, 206, 209, 213, 230, 231 Tawny Fish Owl, 175 Tera [उत्क्रोशी कुररी, कुररी], 338, 341, 342, 345ff. Sriharga Starting [-कलहप्रिया, तिलोरी, तेलिया मैना], 29, 85, 87 Surlings and Mynas [ तैलपक, तैलपायिका, तैलपायी, पारुण, पारूष्ण, सारिका], 84ff. Steppe Eagle 73, 208 Stevens, Herbert, 132 Stints, 367 Stone Chat, 44, 45 Stone Plover [ करवानक, करौनक, कलपाणविक, दीर्घसिर, पाणविक, पानविक, बसिरि, वल्गुला], 39,129,332 Stork [मृषाध्यायी] 95,136,389ff. Stork-billed bird [किकिदीवि] 157 Stork, Heron or White Ibis [बक ], 95, 136 Streaked Fantail-Warbler [घास की फुदकी, तृणचटिका, तुणफुट्कारी 1,69 Striated Swallow [-देवकुलचटक], 99 Stuart Baker, 61, 63, 119, 120, 123, 131, 179, 182, 209, 226, 242, 245, 254, 257, 260, 263, 274, 281, 288, 299, 307, 309, 316, 320, 321, 325, 327, 337, 351, 406, 408, 409, 411, 414, 424, 450, 454, 460 Salapapi. 89 Sultan Tit [स्वर्णचूड, स्वर्णचूल, स्वर्णशिव ], 22 Sun-bird [ीजिरिका, सुवर्णपुष्प] 31, 114, 116, 156 Sureśvarăcărya, 210, 225 Susruta 92, 124, 132, 144, 167, 170, 259, 274, 284, 285, 292, 330, 449 Suthora] [-शुक्रतुण्ड, शुकवोटि, शुकनास, शुकानना ], 23 Svetaketu ārupeya 56 Swallow [कृष्णा, चटक, चटी, परिल्ल, चरिल्ली, चिरिल्ली, पूजनी, भाण्डीक], 92, 99, 100, 101, 165, 167, 168 Swallow & Swift [चटक, पाकोली], 165, 167 Swallow Shrikes [ तालचटक], 61 Swamp Partridge [वृत्ततित्तिरि], 284 Swan [पाकहंस, महाहंस, राजहंस ] 95, 136, 184, 203, 422 f Swans, Geese & Ducks [ हंस ], 95 Swans, Goese, Ducks & Mergansers [ कल- हंस कारण्डव] 422 H. Swift [ अबाबील, इल्लल कुम, परिल्ली, चिरिल्ली, जीवि, दुर्बल, दुर्बलिक, पिण्डीक, भारद्वाज ], 92 99 100, 165 ff. Swift, as a bird of augury, 166 Syemuylga 216 T Thieving Grow [= चौरिकाक]], 2 Thrush [-कुरुबाहक ], 29, 44, 141 Tibetan Tern, 347 Tickell's Flower-peckers [चटिका], 116 "Thumid like a Crow" [काकशङ्की] 9. Tit [ क्षुद्रवस्गुलि खुद्दक बल्गुलि ] 21, 22 Tragopan [ पुष्पशकुन, बकर, बर्कर], 136, 279, 280 Tragopans, Blood Pheasants & Partridges, Tree-creeper [चिकुरचटक, आसराई], 40, 41 Tree-Pic [-करायिका, कुरवक, कुस्कुंचिता, कोटुक्ली, कृशकूट, भष ], 12, 13, 20, 41, 231,260 Tree Pipit [ चचड़ी, चर्षरी, तुलिका, दुलिका, स्फोटिका ], 107 Tree Sparrow [ कुलिङ्क, वनकुलिङ्क बनचटक ], Trogon [सोह, लोहपक्षी, लोहपृष्ठ ], 164 Tropic bird [-समुद्रकाक 1, 377 Tufted 92 Pochand [बम्हनियां हंस, मालक, मालिक ]. 458 Turdus Macrourus (Shama), 47 479 Turkey-Cock, 139 Turtle Doves, 263 Twilight Nightjar [ छप्पा, छापो, छिप्पिका, सीचापू], 171 Uddaiaka Arupi, 36 Ujjvaladatta, 159 Urocissa, 14 Uvvatācārya 10 Vaidya, C. V. 228 Vaidya, K. M., 139 U V 480 Valmiki, 197, 316 Varahamihira, 2, 6, 12, 13, 98, 106, 150, 260, 421 Vasantaraja, 2, 6, 8, 12, 13, 31, 45, 48, 49, 53, 85, 89, 102, 103, 106, 144, 177, 187 Velvet-fronted Nuthatch [ कन्दली], 25, 26 Very Small Heron [स्वल्पकडू], 405 Violet Cuckoo, 190, 131 Vulture [गरुड़, गुध, शकुन, श्येन ], 189, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202, 207, 209, 214, 228 Vultures and Lammergeyer, 188 ff. W Wagtail [-अश्वाख्य, अभ्याख्यक, खजखेट, खजना, 18, 45, 52, 102, 127, 135. Wagtails and Pipits, 102ff. Wall-Creeper [-गोधक, चिकुरचटक, चूवासराई, 40 Warbler [ चटकिका, घटिका, पतंगिका, पुविका ], -56, 68, 69, 89, 92 Water birds in general [प्लव], 299 Water-Crane [ = वञ्जुलप्रिय ], 43 Water Cock [ कोरा, जलकुनकुट, जलकुक्कुभ, पारिप्लव, यष्टिक ], 138 139, 269, 301, 358, 367 Water- Pipit [- चचड़ी, चर्चरी, डुलिका, तुलिका, स्फोटिका], 107 Water Quail (or Snipe) [= कोनालक, कोनील] 308 Waxwing, 97 Weaver-bird [ कलविण, कलविङ्क, कावक, कौलिक, कौलीक, गृहकारी, चडनुसूची, पीतमुण्ड कलविण, पीतमुण्ड कलविङ्क, पीतमुण्ड चटक, सिंगिल, सुग्रह, सुगृहकर्ता सूचीमुख ] 88, 89, 94, 96 Weaver-birds & Munias, 88 ff. Web-footed Water-bird (or Goose or Duck) [ जालपाद ], 299 Wedge-tailed Green Pigeons [ कोक, कोकदेव, कोकला, चक्कोक, हरियल, हारीत], 254 Western Himalayan Barred Owlet [ बड़ा डुण्डुल] 178 Western Homed Pheasant [-जिगुरान, ॠष्टि] 280 Western Palm Swift [तालचट, तालचटक]. 168 Whimbrel (or Titterel) [fef], 366 Whiskered Bulbuls [पुष्पावतंसक], 36, 37 Whiskered Tern [पुष्करशायिका, पुष्करसद, पुष्करसाद] 94, 157, 349 Whistler 8, 13, 32, 40, 44, 53, 66, 78, 84, 91, 123, 194, 137, 156, 165, 168, 169, 190, 194, 195, 232, 234, 310, 346, 358, 400, 404 "Whistling Schoolboy", 52. Whistling Teal [-शरालि, शराली] 353, 450 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Whistling Thrush [श्रीवद], 49, 50 White, Gilbert, 102, 171 White & Black Storks with red bills [ रक्तपाद- तुण्ड ], [389 White-backed Vulture [-शितिकक्ष गुञ, शिति- कक्षिन्, सुपावं, हिरण्यकक्ष ], 188, 190, 191 White-bellied Drongo [ घौरी भुजंगा ], 98, 63 White-bellied Sea-Bagle [उत्कोश, कोहासा, गरुड़, सप्तराव, सांपमार, सुपर्ण], 187, 200, 207, 212, 213 White-breasted Kingfisher [किकिदीवि, खण्डू, चन्द्रकान्त ] 156, 157 White-breasted Waterhen [ दात्यौह], 124, 293 White-browed Fantail Flycatcher [-विहार], 54 White-checked Bulbul [ सवा], 34, 37, 54, 57 White-checked, White-eared, Black-crested Yellow Bulbul [सट्वा], 37 White-crested Kalij Pheasant [कलेसुर कालिज, कुकेरा, यवालकफुक्कुट], 275 White-crested Laughing Thrushes [कहक- हाराव, राविलकाही], 28, 29 White-cared Bulbul, 34, 37 White-eye [चटकिका, पुविका, बाबुना, सरंग ], 92, 112, 113 White-eyed Pochard [ मल्लिकाक्ष], 428, 458 White-faced Wagtail [सज्जन], 106 White Flycatcher [अर्जुनक] 55 White-fronted Goose [=कलहंस], 497 White House-Crow [श्वेतकाक, शुक्लकाक]. [ 8 White Ibis (or Water-Grow) [-जलकाक, ध्वाङक्ष, बक, शराटिका, शराटी, श्वेतकाक, श्वेतबक] 9, 353, 981, 383, 986, 387, 492 White Ibis Partics [बकप्रकरा:], 387 White-naped Pigmy Falcon] [ मुट्ठी, मुष्टि, मुष्टिक, मुष्टिमोक], 234 White-necked and Black-necked Storks. [- शितिकण्ठ, रक्तपाद] 389, 390 White or Screech Owl [-करैल, पर्धरक]. 173, 176 White Paradise Flycatcher [अर्जुनक ], 122 White Scavenger Vulture [गोबरगीध, गोष्ठ- कुक्कुट, भासक, शकटार, शकटाल, शकुन्त, सुपर्ण ], 138, 191, 192, 193, 194 White Stork [-बकराज, राजबक], 389 White-tailed Bush Chat [खरपिद्दा ], 45 White-tailed Sca-cagle [उत्क्रोश, दैत्यद्वीप, बल ] 212, 213, 214, 215 White-throated Fantail Flycatcher [-fig- [क]],54 White-throated Laughing Thrushes, 29- Index White-throated Munia [पीदड़ी], 45 White-throated & White-backed Munias. [-चटकिका, पिदिड़ी, पिरिलि, पिरिडी, पिरिली, पीदड़ी]],89,90 Y White Wagtail [खंजन खंजनक घोबिन, Wrens [ चिकुर], 40, 12 प्रभद्रक]. 43,49, 86, 102 103, 104, 106 107 White-winged Wood Duck [ देवहंस, रक्ताहंस]. 449 Whooper [ धार्तराष्ट्र], 429, 426, 427 432 Wigeon [-पियासन, प्रियाशन] 454, 455 Wild birds from damp areas [ कच्छेल] 289 Wild Cock [ कुलालकुक्कुट . 138 Wild Duck [ कारण्डव, नीररुगी, नीलग्रीवक, नीलसिर, पीततुण्ड कारण्डव, बन्धुकारण्डव, कारण्डव, बन्धुरकारण्डव, मंजुप्लव, लिसगही] 4.38 Wilson, 30, 52, 57, 96, 196, 223 481 वृक्षकुट्टक, शकुन शतपन] 26, 27, 40, 41, 54. 119, 120, 122 Wood Pigeon [रूचकपारावत], 256 Wordsworth, 33 'Windhover' [ रङ्गण]. 233 Wire-tailed Swallow [-पूजनी, पूजनीया, शिति- पक्षा, गितिपृष्ठा, शितोदरी] 49, 55, 99, 100, 101 Woodcock [ भण्डुतित्तिर, सिमकुकरा, सिमतीतर, हिमकुक्कुट, हिमतित्तिर], 967 Wood-Owl [ कुम्भोलूक ], 180 Woodpecker [ आघाट, कर्करी, कर्बुङ्ग, काष्ठ- कुट्ट, काष्ठकूट, दारुण, दार्याघाट, वृक्षकुक्कुट, Yaska, 73 Yellow-billed Blue Magpies [ पूर्णकूट, दीर्घदल]. 12. 14 Yellow-cheeked Tit [ पट्टिवल्गुलि सट्वा], 22 Yellow-eyed Hawk [गुलचश्मवाज, पाटलाक्ष [], 218 [ Yellow-headed Wagtail [ हारिद्रव ], 75, 76, 103 Yellow-headed Weaver-bird. [-पीतमुण्ड कलविङ्क], 50 Yellow-legged Herring Gull [ कुरराइधि ], 340 Yellow Wagtail [खंजरीट, खंजरीटक, गोप, गोपापुत्र, गोपीत, गोपीतक, गोपीतखंजन, गोपीतनक, गोपीतिलक, गोपुत्र, गोलत्तिका], 40, 76, 103, 104, 105 Yellow-wattled Lapwing [-कटुक्वाण, टिटिभि, पीतपाद, सदालूता]. 83, 337, 360 Sanskrit-Pali-Prakrit Index" with Scientific Names, English and French Equivalents by André Couture and Elfrun Linke The following Index was compiled using two earlier reference lists, those of Mrs. E. Linke (1997) and Prof. Dr. André Couture (1998). The present. revision includes the Pali [P] and Präkrit [Pkt] names as well as those Sanskrit [Skt] terms mentioned by K. N. Dave. In addition to the English names used by Dave, which are usually the same as those found in the well-known guides of Salim Ali (other colloquial names are placed in parentheses), we thought it useful to include those changes in nomenclature which appear in the authoritative guide to the birds of India and related countries, recently published by R. Grimmett, C. Inskipp, and T. Inskipp. The differences in the Scientific and English names occuring in this book are the result of the revision of the taxonomy of the birds of the world published by Sibley and Monroe (1990). To facilitate the consultation of this guide, we chose to place the new names in brackets. The French names, that follow the English names [Fr., if unclear], are drawn from the authoritative reference published by the Commission internatio- nale des noms français des oiseaux in 1993. Words preceded by an asterisk (*) were not found in any dictionary. This Index is intended to facilitate the use of Dave's book. It does not indicate, except in a few cases, the status of these identifications which range from being practically certain to being no more than hypothetical. Ali, S. The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay. '1941; Twelfth Revised and Enlarged Centenary Edition, Oxford University Press, 1996. Commission internationale des noms français des oiseaux, Noms français des oiseaux du monde avec les équivalents latins et anglais. Sainte-Foy (Québec). Éditions MultiMondes; Bayonne (France), Éditions Chabaud, 1993. Couture. A. "Birds in Sanskrit Literature de K. N. Dave: un index sanskrit-latin-anglais- français", Bulletin d'études indiennes, n° 16 (1998), p. 179-229. Grimmett, R., Inskipp. C.. and Inskipp, T. A Guide to the Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives, Princeton (N.J.). Princeton University Press, 1999. Inskipp. T., Lindsey, N., Duckworth, W., An Annotated Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region, Oriental Bird Club, Sandy, 1996. Kapadia, H.R., "The Jaina Records about Birds", Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 43 (1962), p. 59-107: 45 (1964), p. 105-141. Linke. E. "Birds in Sanskrit Literature: Sanskrit-English Index". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. LXXVIII (1997), p. 121-141. Sibley, C. G., Monroe. B. L. Jr. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World, 1990. a agni-kantha, Mirafra javanica [M. cantillans], Singing Bushlark, Alouette de Java, 110 anga-hetuka (P), Phaenicophaeus tristis. [Large] Green-billed Malkoha, Malkoha triste; "the two Sirkeer Cuckoos, the Punjab Sirkeer and the Bengal Sirkeer Cuckoo" (ref. unclear, the only known Sirkeer is Phaenicophacus leschenaultii, 484 Sirkeer Cuckoo [Sirkeer Malkohal, Malcoha sirkir), 140 angäraka. Dicrurus adsimilis [D. macro- cercus]. (Common) Black Drongo (or King-crow), Drongo brillant, 40, 63 angara-codaka, Pycnonotus atriceps, Black- headed Bulbul, Bulbul cap-nègre; Pycnonotus melanicterus. Black-crested Bulbul, Bulbul à tête noire, 34, 39 adila (or *adilla) (Pkt), small bats, cf. Skt. alila atyüha, Cuculus varius [Hierococcyx Varius]. Common Hawk Cuckoo (or Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra, 132, 140, 293: Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl), Paon bleu, 293 anala. Falco tinnunculus, [Common] Kestrel. Faucon crécerelle, 233 andha-kaka, Ardeola grayii. Paddy Bird or Pond Heron [Indian Pond Heron], Crabier de Gray, 404-405 anna-dosaka, used for gregarious and crop- damaging Fringillidae of the subfamily Emberezinae, esp. Emberiza melano- cephala, Black-headed Bunting. Bruant mélanocéphale; Emberiza bruniceps, Red- headed Bunting, Bruant à tête rousse, 95- 96, 141 anyabhrta-paksa-kaka, any of the Corvidae, genus Corvus (Crow / Corbeau. Corneille) "black-plumaged like the Koel" (anya- bhrta, cf. parabhrt), 6 anya-vapa, parasitic Cuckoos (family Cucu- lidae). in contrast to non-parasitic Mal- kohas and Coucals, 127-128 aparajita, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17 apăndura-kapota, Streptopelia decoacto.. (Indian) Ring Dove [Eurasian Collared D.). Tourterelle turque, 257, 258 amrta-väkä, female of the Falco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 225, 226; called "Singing Hawk" or "Chanting Falcon ", 226. ambaka-maddari (P), any of the Coryidae, tribe Oriolini, genus Oriolus, esp. Oriolus oriolus, Golden Oriole [Eurasian Golden Oriole], Loriot d'Europe: Oriolus: xanthornus, Black-headed Oriole [Black- hooded Oriole], Loriot à capuchon noir. 77, 78. ambaka-pilika, ambaka-pilika, ambāki- pilika (Pkt), 77, 78 ambu-kukkutikä, ambu-kukkuff, the smallest of the Rails or Crakes (Fr. Räles), 292 Birds in Sanskrit Literature aranya-kaka, Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, Corneille noire; Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow (Large-billed Crow], Corneille à gros bec, 6.7 aranya-cataka, may refer to certain Alaudidae such as: Eremopterix grisea. Ashy-crowned Finch Lark [Ashy-crowned Sparrow Lark]. Moinelette croisée; Ammomanes phoenicurus. Rufous-tailed Finch Lark [Rufous-tailed Lark). Ammo- mane à queue rouge, 110-111 arista-kanka. Haliastur indus, Brahminy Kite, Milan sacré, 243 aruna. Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King). Vulture [Red-headed V.). Vautour royal, 196 arma-kapota, Streptopelia tranquebarica. Red Turtle Dove [Red Collared Dove]. Tourterelle à tête grise, 257, 259, 260 aruna-krauñca, Phoenicopterus ruber, Flamingo [Greater Flamingo], Flamant rose, 413 arjuna, "may refer to an albino form of the white Peacock imported from China," 55, 270 arjunaka. Terpsiphone paradisi, [Asian] Paradise Flycatcher, Tchitrec de paradis, 55, 56, 122 alaja, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu. 188, 194, 195: regarded as the king of Eagles, 200, 201 aliklava, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea Eagle (Pallas's Fish Eagle), Pygargue de Pallas, 214 alila, Apus affinis, House Swift, Martinet desi maisons, 166, 167 aluna(-hamsa) (Asoka Pkt), Dendrocygna bicolor. Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous Whistling-Duck], Dendrocygne fauve, 450 alpa-kapiñjala, two small Quails: Perdicula asiatica. Jungle Bush Quail, Perdicule rousse-gorge: Perdicula argoondah, Rock Bush Quail. Perdicule argoondah. 286 avabhanjana, Anastomus oscitans, Openbill Stork [Asian Openbill], Bec-ouvert indien, 396 asvaka, small birds having a certain. similarity of habits with a frisky little colt: Bushchats (Fr. Tariers). Wheatears and Chats (Fr. Traquets), the Indian Robin (Fr. Pseudotraquet indien. the [Oriental] Magpie Robin (Fr. Shama dayal). also the White Wagtail (Fr. Bergeronnette grise), 44, 45, 47 aśvaka-cataka. 45, idem Index Sanskrit aśvaka śrīvāda, Copsychus saularis. [Orien- talj Magpie Robin. Shama dayal, 50 akvakhya(ka), cf. ásakkhaya (P), and asvaka ā akasa-yogini, Falco tinnunculus, [Common) Kestrel, Faucon crécerelle, 233 aghata, refers to all Woodpeckers (Fr. Pics). 119 aja, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu, 195 aja-grdhra, idem, 188 ataka-cataka, Buntings (Fr. Bruants). 93, 96 ata, ätä (P). Pseudibis papillosa. Black Ibis. This noir, 380, 384 ati, ati, idem, 351, 353, 381, 382, 383, 386 ädi (Pkt), idem, 384 atayin, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite (Black K.), Milan noir, 245 äti, Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer. Bec-en-ciseaux à collier. 353. atma-ghosa, a variety of Corvidae, genus Corvus, 3 n. 4 ärä, ära-mukhi, Limosa limosa, Black-tailed Godwit, Barge à queue noire, 366 äri, Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer, Bec-en-ciseaux à collier, 353 asakkhaya (or "äsakkha) (Pkt), cf. aśvaka, asvakhya asura-käkola, Corvus corax, [Common] Raven, Grand Corbeau, 5, 6, 11 i indrabha. Lophophorus impejanus. Impeyan Pheasant [Himalayan Monal], Lophophore resplendissant, 277, 278 illala, any of the Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), 100 u ukkusa (P), 214, cf. maha ukkusa utkrosa, may refer to several noisy Fish or Sea Eagles (Fr. Pygargues): Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea Eagle (P. Fish Eagle], Pygargue de Pallas: Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, Grey-headed Fishing Eagle [G. Fish Eagle]. Pygargue à tête grise, 185ff., 213ff.. 342, Haliaeetus leucogaster. White-bellied Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre. 187, 213: also Laridae, Larini (Gulls / Goélands, Mouette) and Sternini (Tern/ 485 Sterne) tribes, and Numenius arquata. [Eurasian] Curlew, Courlis cendré, 185, 341-342, cf. kurara utkrosa-kurara, any of the Laridae, Larini and Sternini tribes (Gull. Tern / Goéland. Mouette. Sterne); also Fishing [Fish] and 1 Sea Eagles (Fr. Pygargues), 342 utkrosi kurari, any of the Laridac, Sternini tribe (Tern/ Sterne); also Numenius. arquata, [Eurasian] Curlew, Courlis cendré (Curlew), 341, 342; cf. kurari. utpatya-pakalä. Hirundo rustica. Common Swallow (Barn S.J. Hirondelle rustique; Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed Swallow, Hirondelle à longs brins; Delichon urbica, House Martin, Hirondelle de fenêtre [now subdivided into: Delichon urbica, Northern House Martin, Hirondelle de fenêtre; Delichon dasypus. Asian House Martin, Hirondelle de Bonaparte: Delichon nipalensis. Nepal House Martin, Hiron- delle du Népal], 100 utpäda-sayana, Vanellus indicus, Red- wattled Lapwing. Vanneau indien, 360. uddipaka, may refer to: Aquila rapax. Tawny Eagle, Aigle ravisseur, 208 uddipaka-grdhra, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) Vulture [Red-headed V.). Vautour royal, 188 upacakra. Ammoperdix griscogularis. See- see Partridge, Perdrix si-si, 282: Tadornal ferruginea. Ruddy Sheldrake [Ruddy Shelduck). Tadorne casarca, 450 or Shelducks (Fr. Tadornes) in general, 450 uma, Monticola solitarius, Blue Rock Thrush, Monticole merle-bleu, 48 uragasana, a mythical epithet evoking either the Heliacetus leucogaster, White-bellied Sea Eagle. Pygargue blagre, or any bird of the Accipitridae family, genus Spilornis. (Serpent Eagle / Serpentaire). 207 ulüka, any of the large typical Strigidae (Owl /Hibou, Chouette). 176, 177 uluka-ceff, any of the small typical Strigidae (Owlet/Chevêchette, Chevêche), 176 ustra-ratha. Struthio camelus. Ostrich, Autruche d'Afrique (imported bird), 281 ū ürdhva-kamnolūka, any of the Strigidae, genus Otus (Scops Owl/Petit-duc), 178 486 eka-putraka, Hemiprocne longipennist [Hemiprocne coronata]. Crested Swift (Crested Treeswift]. Hémiprocné longi- penne, 168 ekänga-varaka, any of the Bucerotidae (Hornbill / Calao), 159 k kakara, Pterocles exustus, Indian Sandgrouse [Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse), Ganga à ventre brun, 265 kakunjala, 137, cf. cätaka kakubha. Tetraogallus himalayensis, Himalayan Snowcock. Tétraogalle de l'Himalaya, 139, 284 kakubhakara, idem, 139 kanka. Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea Eagle [P. Fish Eagle, Pygargue de Pallas, 195, 213, 214, 229, 243; Ardea cinerea, Grey Heron, Héron cendré, 219, 224, 400, 401, 402, Haliastur indus, Brahminy Kite. Milan sacré, 242, 243, 245 kankeru. Ardea purpurea, Purple Heron, Héron pourpré, 402 kacchela, varieties of wild Quails (Fr.) Cailles), or more likely, of Bustard Quails [Buttonquails] (Fr. Turnix), 289 kataprū ulūka. Tyto capensis, Grass Owl, Elfraie du cap, 174 katuka, may refer to the Vanellus gregarius. Sociable Lapwing, Vanneau sociable, 360- 361 katu-kväna. Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled. Lapwing, Vanneau indien; Vanellus malabaricus, Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanneau du Malabar; or still Vanellus spinosus [duvaucelii), Spur-winged Plover (Lapwing) [River Lapwing]. Vanneau à éperons, 360 kathaku, kathāru, Upupa epox, [Common] Hoopoe, Huppe fasciće, 162 kana-bhaksaka, 96. cf. anna-düşaka kanatina, Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.], Bergeronnette grise. 106 kantha-nidaka. Falco tinnunculus. [Com- mon] Kestrel, Faucon crécerelle, 233, 234 kantha-pala, kantha-väla, Podiceps cristatus, Great Crested Grebe, Grèbe huppé. 369. 462 kanthägni, Mirafra javanica [M. cantillans]. Singing Bushlark, Alouette de Java, 110 kandola, Galerida cristata. Crested Lark. Cochevis huppé, 111 kandūra (Pkt). Leptoptilos javanicus, Lesser Adjutant Stork, Marabout chevelu, 395 Birds in Sanskrit Literature kandagalaka. Sitta castanea, Chestnut- bellied Nuthatch. Sitelle à ventre marron (and subspecies), 26, 27; other varieties of Sittidae (Nuthatch/Sitelle), 26, 27 kandalaka, Sitta castanea, Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, Sitelle à ventre marron (and) subspecies), 26 kandali, various Sittidae (Nuthatch / Sitelle). 24ff.; Sitta castanea, Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, Sitelle à ventre marron (and subspecies), 25ff.; Sitta frontalis, Velvet- fronted Nuthatch, Sitelle veloutée, 25, 26 kapardika, Ceryle rudis, Pied Kingfisher. Martin-pêcheur pie; or Megaceryle lugubris, Greater Pied Kingfisher [Crested K.J. Martin-pêcheur tacheté, which is the related species found above 800 m in the Himalayas, 155, 219, 234 kapinjala, Francolinus pondicerianus, Grey Partridge, Francolin gris, 58, 93, 283; Cuculus varius, Common Hawk Cuckoo. Coucou shikra. 93. 131: Nyctyornis athertoni, Blue-bearded Bee-eater, Guêpier à barbe bleue, 148; Lerwa lerwa, Snow. Partridge, Lerva des neiges, 284 kapinjali, female of the Francolinus pondi- cerianus, Grey Partridge, Francolin gris, 58 kapeksuka, Phoenicurus ochruros, Black Redstart, Rougequeue noir, 49 kapota, any of the Columbidae (Pigeon, Dove / Pigeon, Tourterelle), 24, 27, 250ff.. 257ff. kapotaki, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 45 kapotika, any of the Sittidae (Nuthatch / Sitelle), 24, 27 kapoti, idem, 24 kamanacchada-kanka, Haliastur indus, Brah-many Kite, Milan sacré, 243 kambvätāyin. Haliastur indus. Brahmany Kite. Milan sacré, 244 karaka, any of the Sittidae (Nuthatch / Si- telle), 24ff. karata, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus (Crow / Corneille, Corbeau), 1.3 karavīka (P), Copsychus malabaricus. [White-rumped] Shama. Shama à croupion blanc; Copsychus saularis. [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 47, 52 karayikā, any of the Corvidae, tribe. Corvinae, genus Dendrocitta (Treepic / Témia), 12, 13 karala-phala baka, Ephippiorhynchus asia- ticus. Black-necked Stork. Jabiru d'Asie. 392 Index Sanskrit karkata, karkataka, Pelargopsis capensis, (Brown-headed) Stork-billed Kingfisher, Martin-chasseur gurial, 156 karkarākṣa, karkaränga, Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.], Bergeronnette grise, 106 karkarf, any of the Picidae (Woodpecker / Pic), 122 karkaretu, Pelargopsis capensis, (Brown- headed) Stork-billed Kingfisher, Martin- chasseur gurial, 156; Grus virgo, Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, 312, 313, 320, 321 kamayāla vanjula. Podiceps nigricollis, Black-necked Grebe (or Eared G.), Grèbe à cou noir, 462 karnikära, Pycnonotus jocosus, Red- whiskered Bulbul, Bulbul orphée, 35, 37 karniyaka, cf. ralä karburánga, may refer to the Dinopium benghalense, Golden-backed (three-toed) Woodpecker [Common Flameback], Pic du Bengale, 120 kala-kantha, any of the Cuculidae with sonorous call: Cuculus canorus, Common (European) Cuckoo [Eurasian C.], Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan (Asiatic) Cuckoo [Oriental C.], Coucou oriental, 128. kalandaka, kalindaka (P), Sitta castanea, Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, Sitelle à ventre marron (and subspecies); also the Large Indian Squirrel, 26

• kala-pänavika, any of the Burhinidae

(Stone Plover [Thick-knee] / Oedicnème), 332, cf. pânavika kalavinka, a generic term for Sparrow-like birds, 95, with a sweet voice, 94, 167: Turdus boulboul, Grey-winged Blackbird, Merle à ailes grises, 49; Turdus merula, [Eurasian] Blackbird, Merle noir, 49, 50, 93; any of the Passeridae, subfamily. Ploceinae (Weaver / Tisserin), 88, 94; Galerida cristata, Crested Lark, Cochevis huppé, 93; Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal; Copsychus malabaricus, [White-rumped] Shama, Shama à croupion blanc; Turdus merula, [Eurasian] Blackbird, Merle noir. 93; Pyrrhula erythrocephala, Red-headed Bullfinch, Bouvreuil à tête rouge, 94; other birds of the genus Pyrrhula (Bullfinch Bouvreuil), 95; Pyrrhoplectes epauletta, Gold-headed Black Finch [Gold-naped F.). Pyrrhoplecte à nuque d'or, 94 487 kala-hamsa, stands for all grey Geese, 422, 426ff., esp. Anser anser, Greylag Goose, Oie cendrée, 426, 436ff.: also Anser fabalis, Bean Goose, Oie des moissons; and Anser albifrons, [Greater] White-fronted Goose, Oie rieuse, 437 kalaha-priyä (-särikä), Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste, 82, 85, 87; Sturnus vulgaris. [Common] Starling. Étourneau sansonnet, 87 kalahäkulä, Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste, 85 kalatina, Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.], Bergeronnette grise, 106 kalanunädi kalavinka, Turdus merula, [Eurasian] Blackbird, Merle noir, 93 kali-kära, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus], (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 63, 65 kalinga, idem, 65 kavarí, Sturnus pagodarum, Brahmany Myna [Brahmany Starling], Étourneau des pagodes, 85, 86 kaşika, Recurvirostra avosetta, [Pied] Avocet, Avocette élégante, 361 kahakahärāva, Garrulax leucolophus, White- crested Laughingthrush, Garrulaxe à huppe blanche, 28 käka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, Corbeau familier, 1, 2; Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, Corneille noire; Corvus macrorhynchos, Jungle Crow (Large-billed C.], Corbeau à gros bec, 1, 2, 71 kaka-cchadi-khañijana, Motacilla madaraspa- tensis, Large Pied Wagtail [White-browed W.J. Bergeronnette indienne, 103 käka-tundaka-kärandava, Mergellus albel- lus, Smew, Harle piette, 459 käkara, Pterocles exustus, Common (Indian) Sandgrouse [Chesnut-bellied S.J. Ganga à ventre brun, 265 käka-ruka, Asio flammeus, Short-eared Owl. Hibou des marais, 179 kaka-vamsa, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus (Crow / Corneille, Corbeau), 20 käkola, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus (Crow / Corneille, Corbeau), Iff.; Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, Corneille noire; Corvus macrorhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed Crow], Corbeau à gros bec, 1, 6, 7; Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, Corneille noire and / or Corvus macrorhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed Crow], Corbeau à gros bec, 1, 7, 11, 20; 488 Corvus corax, [Common] Raven. Grand Corbeau, 2, 6; all black Corvidae. 3, 8 kacaksa, Ceryle rudis, Pied Kingfisher, Martin-pêcheur pie; or Megaceryle lugubris, Greater Pied Kingfisher [Crested K.J. Martin-pêcheur tacheté, which is the related species found above 800 m in the Himalayas, 155: Mycteria leucocephala, Painted Stork, Tantale indien, 395 kācākṣa-baka, Mycteria leucocephala, Painted Stork, Tantale indien, 395 kañcana, any of the Corvidae, tribe Oriolini, genus Oriolus (Oriole/Loriot), 79 kana-kapota, Streptopelia tranquebarica, Red Turtle Dove [Red Collared D.), Tourterelle à tête grise, 257, 259, 450 kāṇüka, Nettapus coromandalianus; Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose), Anserelle de Coromandel, 450 kādamba-hamsa, Apser indicus, Bar-headed Goose, Oie à tête barrée, 426, 438 käma-cări, Passer domesticus, House Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92 kämuka, idem, 92

• kayara (Pkt), 265, cf. Skt kutittira,

käranda, Mergus merganser, Common Merg- anser (Eastern Goosander), Grand Harle, 459 kärandava, Fulica atra, [Common] Coot. Foulque macroule, 299ff.; a generic term for Swans / Cygnes, Geese / Oies, Ducks / Canards, Mergansers / Harles, 422; Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard (or Wild Duck), Canard colvert, 453; Mergus merganser, Common Merganser (Eastern Goosander), Grand Harle, 459,460 kärpäsikä, Elanus caeruleus, Black-winged Kite [Black-shouldered K.J. Élanion blac (or blanc), 246 / kälaka baja, Falco rusticolus, Gyrfalcon, Faucon gerfaut, 219 kala-kantha, Passer domesticus, House Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92, 93: Motacilla madaraspatensis, Large Pied Wagtail (White-browed W.J. Bergeronnette indienne, 103; Pavo cristatus, [Indian] Peafowl (or Peacock), Paon bleu, 293 kala-kantha-kalavinka. Copsychus malaba- ricus, [White-rumped] Shama. Shama à croupion blanc, 46, 93, 94; Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] Magpic Pobin, Shamal dayal, 46, 50, 93, 94 kala-kant(h)a(ka) dätyüha, Pseudibis papillosa, Black Ibis, Ibis noir, 224, 294, 385 Birds in Sanskrit Literature kalaka, female of the Dicrurus adsimilis [ma- crocercus], (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 40. 63 kala-kurara, may refer to "dark-plumaged" Fishing [Fish] Eagles or Sea Eagles (Fr. Pygargues), 186 kala-küta, Pica pica, [Black-billed] Magpie, Pie bavarde, 12, 14, 20 kala-kokila (P, Ja V 419.13) Eudynamys scolapacea, [Asian] Koel, Coucou koël, 129 kålagrdhra. Aegypius monachus, Cinereous Vulture, Vautour moine, 188, 190 kala-cataka, Turdus boulboul, Grey-winged Blackbird, Merle à ailes grises, 49; Turdus merula, [Eurasian] Blackbird, Merle noir, 52; Dicrurus adsimilis (macrocercus). (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 49 kālajña-kukkua. Lophura leucomelanos. Kalij Pheasant, Faisan leucomèle, 275 kala-puccha-cataka, may refer to any of the Fringillidae, genus Pyrrhula (Bullfinch / Bouvreuil), 94, 95 kala-prstha-kanka, Haliaeetus leucoryphus. Pallas's Sea Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle], Pygargue de Pallas, 213 käla-baka. Ciconia nigra, Black Stork. Cigogne noire, 390 käla-hamsa (P: Paramatthajotika II 277,12), Branta ruficullis, Red-breasted Goose. Bemache à cou roux, 436 kavrka, any of the Passeridae, subfamily Plo- ceinae (Weaver/Tisserin), 89 kästha-kutta, käştha-küta, any of the Picidae (Woodpecker/Pic), 26, 119 käştha-suka, Psittakula krameri, Rose-ringed Parakeet (cr Paroquet), Perruche à collier, 143-144 käsiha (Pkt), any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican /Pélican), 370 kikidivi, Coracias benghalensis, Indian, Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18; Pelargopsis capensis. (Brown-headed) Stork-billed Kingfisher, Martin-chasseur gurial, 156; Halcyon smyrnensis, White-breasted Kingfisher (White-throated K.J. Martin- pêcheur de Smyrne, 156 kiki, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller. Rollier indien, 17 kikivika, Pelargopsis capensis, (Brown- headed) Stork-billed Kingfisher, Martin- chasseur gurial, 157 kinkira, Clamator coromandus, Red-winged Crested Cuckoo [Chestnut-winged C.]. Coucou à collier, 135-136 Index Sanskrit kinkiräta, any of the Cuculidae (Cuckoo / Coucou), 23, 136; or Psittacidae (Parakeet / Perruche), 23, 140 kinkirata-suka, Psittacula alexandri, (Indian) Red-breasted Parakeet (Paroquet), Perruche à moustaches, 144 kiriti, Melophus lathami. Crested Bunting, Bruant huppé, 96 kīcuka, Sasia ochracea, Rufous Piculet [White-browed]. Picumne à sourcils blancs; Picumnus innominatus, Speckled Piculet, Picumne tacheté, 120-121 kirsa (kirsa), Merops orientalis, (Small) Green (or Common Indian) Bee-eater, Guêpier d'Orient, 149f. kiva(-sauna) (Pkt), Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.), Vautour percnoptère, 193 kukuttaka, Upupa epox. [Common] Hoopoe, Huppe fasciée, 162 kukkuta, Gallus gallus, Red Junglefowl (Common or Wild Cock), Coq bankiva, 138 kukkutaka, Galloperdix spadicae, .Red. Spurfowl, Galloperdrix rouge, 281 kukkutikä, small Rails or Crakes (Fr. Råles), 292 kukkubha, Centropus sinensis, [Greater) Coucal, Grand Coucal, 71, 137ff. kunkuma-codaka, Garrulax erythrocephalus, Red-headed Laughingthrush [Chestnut- crowned L.), Garrulaxe à tête rousse, 29 kunkuma-dhūmra-kapota, Streptopelia sene- galensis, Little Brown Dove [Laughing D.], Tourterelle maillée, 257 kunkumärakta, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite, Milan sacré, 29 kujal-cataka), refers to any of the Alaudidae, genera Eremoptrix and Ammomanes (Finch Lark [Sparrow Lark], Lark / Moinelette, Ammomane), 110, cf. aranya- cataka kutaru, Megalaima zeylanica, Northern (Large) Green Barbet [Brown-headed B.). Barbu à tête brune: Megalaina lineata. Lineated Barbet, Barbu rayé, 124 kuti-düsaka (P), Riparia riparia, Collared. (Indian) Sand Martin (Sand M.]. Hirondelle de rivage; Hirundo concolor, Dusky Crag Martin, Hirondelle concolore. (or Hirundo rupestris, [Eurasian] Crag Martin, Hirondelle des rochers), 99 kuthaku, Upupa epox. (Common] Hoopoe, Huppe fasciée. 162 kunapī. Sturnus contra, Pied Myna [Asian Pied Starling). Étourneau pie, 85, 86 489 kunala (P), Rostratula benghalensis, Painted Snipe [Greater Painted-snipe]. Rhynchée peinte; Gallicrex cinerea, Watercock, Råle à crête; or Lophura leucomelanos, Kalij Pheasant, Faisan leucomèle, 308 kundalf, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) Vulture [Red-headed V.J. Vautour royal, 188, 190 kutittira, Francolinus gularis, (Kayah or) Swamp Partridge [Swamp Francolin]. Francolin multiraie, 283 kunāla, idem kubja(-cataka), 111, cf. kuja(-cataka) kumaraka, male of the Turnicidae (Button- quail/Turnix), 291, cf. 286-287 kumäri syāmá, Copsychus malabaricus, [White-rumped] Shama, Shama à croupion blanc, 50 kumuda. Elanus caeruleus, Black-winged Kite (Black-shouldered K.), Élanion blac (or blanc), 246 kumbha, Centropus sinensis, [Greater] Coucal, Grand Coucal, 138 kumbhakära-kukkuta, idem, 138 kumbholüka, large hooting Strigidae (Owl / Hibou, Chouette), 138, 176, 180, esp. Wood Owls, having no ear-tufts, 180 kurankura-särasa, Grus leucogeranus, Great White Crane [Siberian C.]. Grue de l Sibérie, 320 kurantaka, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande Outarde, 326, 329 ku-rabaka, see ku-ravaka kurara (f. kurari), Pandion haliaetus, Osprey, Balbuzard pécheur; also Fishing (Fish] Eagles or Sea Eagles / Pygargues, 185ff.. 341, 348; any Laridac of the Larini tribe. (Gull / Goéland, Mouette), 185, 341ff., and sometimes of the Sternini tribe (Tern / Sterne), 342-343; Numenius arquata, [Eurasian] Curlew, Courlis cendré, 341- 342: Grus virgo, Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, 186, 312, 320, 321, 341, according to Dave, Terns (Fr. Sternes), or Numenius arquata, [Eurasian] Curley, Courlis cendré, are the birds whose calls may be compared to the sorrowful wail of women, 342-343, 364-365 Kuraranghri, Larus cachinnans, Yellow- legged (Herring) Gull, Goéland leucophée; Larus ichthyaetus, Great Black-headed Gull [Pallas's G.], Goéland ichthyaète, 340 kurarikä, the smallest of the Terns: Sterna albifrons, Little Tern, Sterne naine: Chlidonias hybridus. Whiskered Tern, Guifette moustac, 348, 350490 kurari (feminine form of kurara, used for birds smaller than Gulls), any Laridac of the Sternini tribe (Tern/ Sterne), 341-342, 347-348; also Numenius arquata, [Eurasian] Curlew, Courlis cendré, 185, 341-342, 348, 364-366 ku-ravaka, Dendrocitta vagabunda, Indian. Treepie [Rufous T]. Témia vagabonde; Dendrocitta formosac, Himal-ayan Treepie [Grey T.], Témia de Swinhoe, 12, 13

• kurukuřicitä, idem, 12

kuru-bähu, Pomatorhinus ruficollis, Rufous- necked Scimitar Babbler [Streak-breasted S. B.), Pomatorhin à col roux; Poma- torhinus horsfieldii, Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler [Indian S. B.J, Pomatorhin de Horsfield, 28. kuru-báhuka, esp. Garrulax ruficollis, Rufous-necked Laughingthrush, Garrulaxe à col roux, 28; Turdoides caudatus, Common Babbler, Cratérope indien; Tordoides striatus, Jungle Babbler, Cratérope de brousse, 28, 29

• kula-väri, small Rails or Crakes (Fr. Râles),

esp. Gallirallus striatus, Blue-breasted Banded Rail [Slaty-breasted R.J. Râle strié; Rallina curizonoides, Banded Crake [Slaty- legged C.), Râle de forêt, 292 kulala, large hooting Strigidac (Owl/ Hibou, Chouette), 138; certain Wood Owls, esp. Strix leptogrammica, Brown Wood Owl, Chouette leptogramme, 180 kulala-kukkuta, Centropus sinensis, [Greater] Coucal, Grand Coucal, 137, 138, 150; Gallus gallus, Red Junglefowl (Common or Wild Cock), Coq bankiva, 138 kulala-kukkubha, Centropus sinensis, [Greater] Coucal, Grand Coucal, 138. kuläll Sakunikä, Merops orientalis, (Small) Green (or Common Indian) Bee-eater, Guêpier d'Orient, 150 ku-linga, Dicrurus adsimilis (macrocercus), (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 63; various small birds. moving about on the ground in search of food (Sparrow, Finch, Bunting / Moineau, Roselin, Bruant), 92, 95; Grus grus, Common Crane, Grue cendrée, 315 ku-lingaka, Turdus boulboul, Grey-winged Blackbird, Merle à ailes grises; Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shamal dayal, 50, 93; Passer domesticus, House Sparrow, Moineau domestique, and related species, 167; certain Accipitridae of the i Birds in Sanskrit Literature genus Accipiter, including Accipiter badius, Shikra, Épervier shikra, 235-236 ku-lingaka, Accipiter nisus, [Eurasian] Sparrowhawk, Épervier d'Europe, 199 kulikä, Saroglossa spiloptera, Spotted- winged Stare [Starling], Étourneau à ailes tachetées, 83 kuvaya, Tyto alba, Barn (White, Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173 kuvi, idem, 173 kuşitaka, Recurvirostra avosetta, [Pied] Avocet, Avocette élégante, 361

• künja (read: kunca or konca; Pkt), Grus

virgo, Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, 320 küta-paksi, any of the Corvidac, tribe. Corvini, genera Cissa, Urocissa and Pica (Magpie / Pie, Pirolle), 12 küni, female of the Turnicidae (Bustard Quail [Buttonquail]/Turnix), 291 krkarata, any of the Alaudidae, genus Mirafra (Bushlark / Alouette), as distincti from Mirafra javanica [M. cantillans], Singing Bushlark, Alouette de Java, 110, cf. krakarata krkala, cf. krakara, refers to Syrrhaptes tibetanus, Tibetan Sandgrouse, Syrrhapte. du Tibet, 266, 267 krkaläsaka, Circus pygargus, Montagu's. Harrier, Busard cendré, 247 krkaväku, Gallus gallus, Red Junglefowl. Coq bankiva, 273 krkälikä, Athene brama, Spotted Owlet, Chevêche brame, 177 krsa, ahy of the Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), 99, 165 kria-kantha (sáranga), Tetrax tetrax, Little Bustard, Outarde canepetière, 325, 328 kria-küta, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Dendrocitta (Treepie / Témia), 12, 13, 20 krsi-dvista, 96, cf. anna-düşaka krsna-kaka, Corvus macrorhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed C.]. Corneille à gros bec, 1. 3, 7; Corvus corone, Carrion Crow. Corneille noire and/or Corvus macro- rhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed C.J. Corneille à gros bec, 1, 6, 7, 201 krsna-griva, Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal; Copsychus malabaricus, [White-rumped) Shama, Shama à croupion blanc, 94: Ephippio- rhynchus asiaticus, Black-necked Stork, Jabiru d'Asie, 391 krsna-coda, Pycnonotus cafer, Red-vented Bulbul, Bulbul à ventre rouge. 35 Index Sanskrit krsna-tittira, Francolinus francolinus, Black Partridge [Black Francolin], Francolin noir, 283 krsna-pakṣī, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian, Robin, Pseudotraquet indien; Monticola cinclorhynchus, Blue-headed Rock Thrusht [Blue-capped R. T.J. Monticole à croupion roux, 46, 48; krsna-patrin, idem, 46 krsna-pecaka, Ninox scutulata, Brown Hawk Owl, Ninoxe hirsute, 179 krsna-fakuni, Corvus corax, [Common] Raven, Grand Corbeau, 5, 7; Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 46 krsna-samsthana, refers to: Falco rusticolus, Gyrfalcon, Faucon gerfaut, 219 krsnä jalakukkutí, Gallinula chloropus, [Common] Moorhen, Gallinule poule- d'eau, 292-293 krsnäksa-syena, "Brown-eyed Falcon", a term used by Muslim Falconers, 217 krsnänga-suka, Psittacula roseata, Blossom- headed Parakeet (Paroquet), Perruche à tête rose, 143, 144 krsnika, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 46; may refer to: Monticola cinclorhynchus, Blue-headed Rock Thrush [Blue-capped R. T.J. Monticole à croupion roux, 48 keśaraja, Dicrurus hottentottus, Hair-crested Drongo [Spangled D.], Drongo à crinière, 64 kesya, idem, 64 kesarf, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican / Péli- can), 370 kairāäta, non-parasitic Cuculidae of the genus Phacnicophaeus (Malkoha, Sirkeer / Malcoha), 140 koila (for: Avasyaka 'giri, read Malabhäşya 113 on Avašyaka-Nijjutti 271b, Pkt), 128, cf. kokila kokathu, Treron apicauda, Pin-tailed Green Pigeon, Colombar à longue queue; Treron sphenura. Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon. Colombar chanteur, 254 koka-deva, idem, 254 kokila, Eudynamys scolopacea, [Asian] Koel, Coucou koel; also Cuculus canorus, European or Grey [Eurasian] Cuckoo, Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan or Asiatic [Oriental] Cuckoo, Coucou oriental, 128 konca (P) Phoenicopterus ruber, Common [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose; 491 Phoenicopterus minor, Lesser Flamingo, Flamant nain, 415 n.; cf. *kūnja kotuklī, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Dendrocitta (Treepie / Témia), 13 kottha (P), hooting or large Owl, may refer to: Ketupa zeylonensis, Brown Fish Owl, Kétoupa brun, 157 kottha-sätaka (P: PED considers the sätaka to be another bird), Nettapus coromanda- lianus, Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose]. Anserelle de Coromandel, 157 konalaka, Gallicrex cinerea, Watercock, Râle à crête; or Lophura leucomelanos, Kalij Pheasant, Faisan leucomèle, 276, 302, 308 konālaga (Pkt), idem, 3012 kontha, large hooting Strigidae (Owl / Hibou); may refer to: Ketupa zeylonensis, Brown Fish Owl, Kétoupa brun, 157 konālaka, cf. konfla konila, Rostratula benghalensis, [Greater] Painted Snipe, Rhynchée peinte, 308 kopi, Metopidius indicus, Bronze-winged Jacana, Jacana bronzé, 304

• kola-puccha (Pkt), Leptoptilos dubius,

[Greater] Adjutant (Stork), Marabout argala, 393 kaulika, kaulika, any Passeridae of the Ploceinae subfamily (Weaver / Tisserin), 88 kaulika, large hooting Strigidae (Owl / Hibou, Chouette), 176, 177, 179 krakara, Pterocles orientalis, Imperial. Sandgrouse [Black-bellied S.J. Ganga unibande, 265 krakarāta, any of the Alaudidae, genus. Mirafra (Bushlark / Alouette), as distinct from Mirafra javanica [M. cantillans], Singing Bushlark, Alouette de Java, 110, cf. krkarata kratu-yasti. Tragopan satyra, Crimson Horned Pheasant [Satyr Tragopan], Tragopan satyre; or Tragopan melano- cephalus, Western Horned Pheasant [Western Tragopan]. Tragopan de Hastings, 280 krun, kruñca, Phoenicopterus ruber, Common [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant. rose; Phoenicopterus minor, Lesser Flamingo, Flamant nain, 312, 408, 409, 411,414, 416, 418, 420 krüra-väk, any black Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus (Crow / Corbeau, Corneille), except the [Common] Raven (Fr. Grand Corbeau), 31 kraufica, Grus grus, Common Crane, Grue cendrée, 312, 313, 315, 321 492 kvayi, Athene brama, Spotted Owlet. Chevêche brame, 124; Tyto alba, Barn (Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 124, 173 ksatraka. Ceryle rudis, Pied Kingfisher. Martin-pêcheur pie [or Megaceryle lugubris, Greater Pied Kingfisher [Crested K.J. Martin-pêcheur tacheté, which is the related species above 800 m in the Himalayas, 155 kşayi-hamsa, Marmaronetta angustirostris, Marbled Teal, Marmaronette marbrée, 457 ksipra-syena, Falco peregrinus, Peregrine. Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 210, 222, 225 ksudra-gidhri, Milvus migrans, Common Pariah Kite (Black K.), Milan noir, 189, 245 ksudra-valguli, cf. khuddaka-valguli ksudra-hamsa, small and medium-sized Anatidae (Duck / Canard), 422 ksudrolüka, the smaller Strigidae (Owlet / Chevêche, Chevêchette), 176 ksemankari, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite, Milan sacré, 244 kṣvinka, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) Vulture [Red-headed V.J. Vautour royal, 190, 196 kh kha-kamini, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite, Milan sacré, 243, 244 khajáka, Anas clypeata, Shoveller [Northern Shoveler], Canard souchet, 457 khanja-kheta, any of the Passeridae, sub- family Motacillinae, genus Motacilla (Wagtail/Bergeronnette), 102 kharija-khela, Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.]. Bergeronnette grise, 106 khanjana, any of the Passeridae, subfamily Motacillinae, genus Motacilla (Wagtail / Bergeronnette), 102; white Wagtails, esp. Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.]. Bergeronnette grise (and subspecies), 49, 52, 102ff. khanjanaka, white Wagtails, esp. Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail (White W.], Bergeron- nette grise (and subspecies), 102 khanjanika, Charadrius dubius, Little Ringed Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 334, 357 khanjarī, Phoenicurus ochruros, Black Redstart, Rougequeue noir. 49 khanjarita, khanjaritaka, yellow Wagtails: Motacilla flava. Yellow Wagtail, Birds in Sanskrit Literature Bergeronnette printanière (and subspecies); Motacilla citreola, Yellow-headed Wagtail [Citrine W.]. Bergeronnette citrine, 103ff.; but may also designate white Wagtails, 105 khanjariti, female of the yellow Wagtails, cf. khanjarita, 105 khatvänga(ka). Buceros bicornis, Great Hornbill, Calao bicorne, 160. khara-krauńca, Grus virgo. Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, 312, 320, 321 khara-sabda-kurara, any noisy Laridae, Larini tribe (Gull / Goéland, Mouette), 342 khargalā, Athene brama, Spotted Owlet, Chevêche brame, 177 khata-hamsa, Anas clypeata, Shoveller [Northem Shoveler], Canard souchet, 456. khira-hamsa (P: Paramattha-jotikä II 277,12), a kind of Goose, 436 n., cf. 429 khuddaka-valguli (P: Dhp-a III 223,6), Tit, a small bird, esp. Parus major, Grey Tit [Great T.]. Mésange charbonnière; or Parus. xanthogenys, Yellow-checked Tit (Black- lored T.], Mésange à joues jaunes, 21 khe-gamana, Pseudibis papillosa, Black Ibis, Ibis noir, 385; Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.]. Bergeronnette grise, 385 g ganga-cilli ("Ganges's Kite", cf. cilla), Larus ridibundus, Black-headed Gull, Mouette rieuse, 343; or any Laridae of the Larini tribe (Gull /Goéland, Mouette), 343 gandharva, may refer to Cuculidae with melodious voice: Cuculus canorus, European or Grey [Eurasian] Cuckoo, Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus. Himalayan or Asiatic [Oriental] Cuckoo, Coucou oriental, 128 garuda, a mythical bird, 199ff; may refer to: Aquila chrysactos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 199: Haliaeetus leucogaster. White-bellied Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre, 200, 207, 212; or even Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, Aigle. ravisseur, 200 garutmat, Aquila chrysaetos. (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 202-204, cf. garuda garud-yodhi. Quails (Fr. Cailles) or Bustard Quails [Buttonquails] (Fr. Turnix) which fight with their wings, 285

• galeganda (Pkt). Leptoptilos dubius.

[Greater] Adjutant (Stork), Marabout. argala, 392f Index Sanskrit galesunda-bharanda, Leptoptilos dubius, [Greater] Adjutant (Stork), Marabout. argala, 399 gänga-särikä, Acridotheres ginginianus, Bank Myna, Martin des berges, 85 giri-vartaka, Ophrysia superciliosa, Mountain Quail [Himalayan Q.]. Ophrysic de l'Himalaya, 282 giris, idem, 282 girisala, any of the Accipitridae, genus Buteo (Buzzard / Buse), 248 "gutthanda (Pkt), Neophron percnopterus. (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.J. Vautour percnoptère, 193 n. 3 gurandaka, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande Outarde, 326-327 guru-kantha, idem, 325, 327, 329 guru-bhara, Aquila chrysactos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 207 güyalakta-salvika, Sturnus contra, Pied Myna [Asian Pied Starling). Étourneau pic, 86 grdhra, all diurnal birds of prey, including. Eagles, 176, 188; esp. Vultures / Vautours, Gypaètes, 188, 189, 199, 214; Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black Kite), Milan noir, 189; various Eagles or Hawk Eagles (Aigle montagnard, Aigle huppé, Aigle botté, etc.), 220, 221 grdhra-raja, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) Vulture [Red-headed V.J. Vautour royal, 196 grdhri, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black Kite), Milan noir, 189, 245 grha-kapota, Columba livia, Domestic (Rock) Pigeon [Rock P.], Pigeon biset, 250 grha-käka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, Corbeau familier, 4, 6 grha-käri. any Passerinae of the Ploceinae subfamily (Weaver/Tisserin), 89, 96 grha-kulinga, Passer domesticus, House Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92, 93 grha-nida, idem, 92 gelata (Asoka Pkt), non-parasitic Cuculidae, genus Phaenicopheus (Malkoha, Sirkeer / Malcoha), 30 n. 2 (read: cilaya ?), 78, 140, cf. kairāta gairika-lava, Perdicula asiatica, Jungle Bush Quail, Perdicule rousse-gorge, 287 go-ksvedaka, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande Outarde, 325, 327 godhaka, Tichodroma muraria, Wallcreeper. Tichodrome échelette, 40 go-narda, Otis tarda, Great Bustard. Grande Outarde, 325, 327, 329 493 gopa, yellow Wagtails, esp. Motacilla flava, Yellow Wagtail, Bergeronnette printanière. 103 gopa-putra, Motacilla alba, White (or Black- headed) Wagtail, Bergeronnette grise; Motacilla citreola, Yellow-headed Wagtail (Citrine W.J. Bergeronnette citrine, 105 gopa-putra, yellow Wagtails, 103, 105; cf. gopa-putra gopita, idem. 76, 103, 104 gopitaka, idem, 76 gopita-kharijana, idem, 103, 104 gopitanaka, idem, 76, 103, 104 gopitilaka, idem, 76, 103, 104 go-putra, idem, 103ff.; Motacilla alba, White (or Black-headed) Wagtail, Bergeronnette grise; Motacilla citreola, Yellow-headed Wagtail [Citrine W.]. Bergeronnette citrine, 105 go-preraka, Dicrurus adsimilis [macro- cercus]. (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 62 go-baka, Bubulcus ibis, Cattle Egret, Héron. garde-boeufs, 404 go-bhandira, Gallinago gallinago, Fantail Snipe (Common S.J. Bécassine des marais, 366, 367 go-mayu, Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, Aigle ravisseur, 208, 230, 231 go-räti, Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste; also some other noisy birds. esp. Babblers/Cratéropes, 30, 87 go-lattikä, female of the yellow Wagtails, 40, 105 go-vatsa(ka). Pycnonotus jocosus, Red- whiskered Bulbul, Bulbul orphée, 34, 36, 37, 39, Pycnonotus cafer, Red-vented Bulbul, Bulbul à ventre rouge, 35ff. gostha-kukkuta, Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.J. Vautour percnoptère, 188, 192, 194 gostha-gocara, idem, 192 gostha-cara, idem, 192 gaura-tittira, Francolinus pondicerianus, Grey Partridge [G. Francolin]. Francolin gris, 283 gaurika. Sturnus pagodarum, Brahmany Myna [B. Starling]. Étourneau des pagodes, 85 gräma-cataka, Passer domesticus, House. Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92, 93 grämina-kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, Corbeau familier, 2, 6; Corvus cornix, Eastern Hooded Crow, Corneille mantelée, 6 494 gh ghanatola, a synonyme for cataka, 137, cf. cataka ghargharaka, Tyto alba, Barn (White, Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173; Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose). Anserelle de Coromandel, 450; Anas poecilorhyncha, Spot-billed Duck (Grey Duck), Canard à bec tacheté, 454 ghüka, refers to large hooting Strigidae (Owl /Hibou, Chouette), 176, 177, 179 ghüghü-krt, Streptopelia tranquebarica, Red Turtle Dove [Red Collared D.). Tourterelle à tête grise, 259 ghonka, Anastomus oscitans, Openbill Stork [Asian Openbill], Bec-ouvert indien, 396 ghonga, ghongaka, idem, 396 ghosta-kukkuta, Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.] (or Neophron Vulture), Vautour percno- plère, 23, 192 C cakora, Alectoris chukar, Chukar (Partridge), Perdrix choukar, 282 cakra, Tadorna ferruginea, Ruddy Sheldrake [Common Shelduck]. Tadorne casarca, 450 cakra-koka, Treron apicauda, Pin-tailed Green Pigeon, Colombar à longue queue; Treron sphenura, Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon, Colombar chanteur, 254 cakravaka, Tadorna ferruginea, Ruddy Sheldrake (Common Shelduck]. Tadorne casarca, 450, 451 cakranga-väja, Accipiter gentilis, [Northern) Goshawk, Autour des palombes (juvenile), 219,237 cakrahva, Tadorna ferruginea. Ruddy Sheldrake [Common Shelduck]. Tadorne casarca, 450 cañcu-sücl, any Passeridae of the Ploceinae subfamily (Weaver/Tisserin), 88 cataka, birds in general, 92; small birds, esp. House Sparrow (Fr. Moineau domestique), Finches (Fr. Roselins), Buntings (Fr. Bruants), etc., 61, 92, 93: Hirundinidae (Swallow, Martin / Hirondelle) and Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), 92, 99, 101. 165, 167 catakika, diminutive of cataka, small birds, esp. Flycatchers (Fr. Gobemouches). Warbler Fauvette, Ground Warbler / Tésie, Bush Warbler / Bouscarle, Wren Birds in Sanskrit Literature Warbler / Prinia, Tailorbird / Couturière, Flycatcher Warbler / Pouillot, 53, 56, 68, 92; also Regulus regulus, Goldcrest. Roitelet huppé, 70: Munia / Munia, 90, 92; or Zosterops palpebrosa, [Oriental] White- eye, Zostérops oriental, 92, 112 caţikā, a diminutive of cafaka, small birds, esp. Flycatcher / Gobemouche. Warbler / Fauvette, Ground Warbler / Tésie, Bush Warbler Bouscarle, Wren Warbler / Prinia, Tailorbird / Couturière, Flycatcher Warbler/Pouillot, 53, 56, 68, 89, 92; also Regulus regulus, Goldcrest, Roitelet huppé, 70; Munia / Munia, 89, 92; Flowerpecker / Dicée, 116 call, various Hirundinidae (Swallow, Martin /Hirondelle), 98-99, 167 candraka, Tyto alba, Barn (White, Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173 candra-känta, Halcyon smyrnensis, White- breasted Kingfisher [White-throated K.J. Martin-chasseur de Smyrne, 156 candrakolüka, Tyto alba, Barn (White, Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173 candra-vihangama, small Ardeidae (Bittern/ Blongios, esp. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, Chestnut Bittern (Cinnamon B.], Blongios canelle, 406 caraka, Falco jugger, Laggar Falcon, Falcon laggar: Falco cherrug. Saker Falcon, Falcon sacre, 221, 228 carilli, cf. cirilli, 167, 168 carcari, any of the Passeridae, subfamily Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit), 107 carcika, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite, Milan sacré, 244 carmacüda, refers to two species of Junglefowl / Coq: Gallus gallus. Redi Junglefowl (Common or Wild Cock). Coq bankiva; Gallus sonneratii. Grey Junglefowl, Coq de Sonnerat, 271 cala-picchaka, Phoenicurus ochruros, Black Redstart, Rougequeue noir; or any of the Passeridae, subfamily Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit), 49 cala-puccha, Coracias benghalensis, Indian I Roller, Rollier indien, 18 cátaka, may refer to: Cuculus varius, Common Hawk Cuckoo (Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra; Clamator jacobinus. Pied (Crested) Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin. 133- 137; also Cuculus [Hierococcyx] sparverioides. Large Hawk Cuckoo, Coucou épervier; Cacomantis passerinus, Plaintive Cuckoo [Grey-bellied C.). Index Sanskrit Coucou à tête grise; Cacomantis sonneratii, Banded Bay Cuckoo, Coucou de Sonnerat, 130, 131, 133 cátaka-pota, a tiny bird, 90 cátaka-sisu, idem, 90 cámikara, any bird of the tribe Oriolini, genus Oriolus, esp. Oriolus oriolus, [Eurasian] Golden Oriole, Loriot d'Europe; Oriolus xanthornus, Black-headed Oriole [Black-hooded O.], Loriot à capuchon noir. 79, 80 câșa, all Coraciidae (Roller / Rollier) Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien; Coracias garrulus, European Roller, Rollier d'Europe; Eurystomus orientalis, Broad-billed Roller [Dollarbird], Rolle oriental, 1620, 146, 157 cikura (cațaka), Tichodroma muraria, Wallcreeper, Tichodrome échelette, 40; Troglodytes troglodytes, Winter Wren, Troglodyte mignon, 42 ciccika, may refer to: Hemiprocne longipennis [Hemiprocne coronata), Crested Swift [Crested Treeswift]. Hémiprocné longi-penne, 168f. (Pkt ciccikä "a musical instrument" mentioned. by Dave p. 169 is not found in the Prakrit Dictionaries) citraka, Pitta brachyura, Indian Pitta, Brève du Bengale, 117 citra-kapota, Streptopelia chinensis, Spotted Dove, Tourterelle tigrine, 257, 258, 263 citra-kokila, Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan (Asiatic) Cuckoo [Oriental C.], Coucou oriental, 128, 129 citra-netră, Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste; Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 85 citra-paksa, Francolinus francolinus, Black Partridge [Black Francolin], Francolin noir; Francolinus pictus, Painted Partridge, Francolin peint, 283 citra-paksa-kapota, Streptopelia chinensis, Spotted Dove, Tourterelle tigrine, 257, 258 citra-prsta, Passer domesticus, House Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92 citra-barhana, citra-barhina. Lophophorus impejanus, Impeyan Pheasant [Himalayan. Monal], Lophophore resplendissant. 277. 278 citra-vaja. cf. casa, 17 citrangada, Gallirallus striatus, Blue-breasted Banded Rail [Slaty-breasted R.J. Rále strié; Rallina fasciata, Banded Crake [Red- legged C.], Râle barré, 292 495 citrangi, Sturnus contra, [Asian] Pied Myna, Étourneau pie, 86 cimi(ka), refers to the Psittacidae (Parakeet / Perruche), 143 cira-jivin, a variety of Corvidae of the Corvini tribe, 3 cirambhana, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black K.), Milan noir, 245 cirantaka, Falco subbuteo, [Eurasian] Hobby, Faucon hobereau, 232 ciri, cf. cimi, 14, 143 ciri-kaka, Cissa chinensis, [Common] Green Magpie, Pirolle verte, 8, 14, 15, 20 ciritika or ciriti, Melophus lathami, Crested Bunting, Bruant huppé, 93, 96, cf. tirita cirilli, Apus affinis, House Swift, Martinet des maisons; common Hirundinidae such as Hirundo rustica, Common Swallow [Barn S.), Hirondelle rustique, 165, 167ff. cilla, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black K.), Milan noir, 234, 245 cirikáka, cf. caurikäka or cirikáka, 15 cadala, Galerida cristata, Crested Lark, Cochevis huppé, 111

• cülánka, Accipiter trivirgatus, Crested

Goshawk, Autour huppé, 235, 236

• colanka-vesara, idem, Northern subspecies,

241

• culikanka, idem, 238, 241
• ceta, male of the Accipiter nisus, [Eurasian]

Sparrowhawk, Épervier d'Europe; and Accipiter virgatus, Besra (or Sparrow- hawk), Épervier besra, 237 cetakedu, celakedu (P), Terpsiphone paradisi, [Asian] Paradise Flycatcher, Tchitrec del paradis, 56, 403 celápaka, "vaka (P), Casmerodius albus, Large Egret [Great E.J. Grande aigrette, 56, 403 cauri-kaka, Corvus monedula, [Eurasian] Jackdaw, Corbeau calédonien, 2, 4, 8, 14- 15, 20 ch chippika, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar /Engoulevent), 170, 171 j jatäyu, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu, 195ff. jaritāri (jarita), Nyctyornis athertoni, Blue- bearded Bee-eater, Guêpier à barbe bleue, 152 496 jala-kapota, Metopidius indicus, Bronzed- winged Jacana, Jacana bronzé, 304 jala-kaka, Pseudibis papillosa, Black ibis, Ibis noir, 294, 382, 383-384; Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorant / Cormorant), 371, 372; Threskiornis acthiopica [melanocephalus]. White Ibis [Black-headed I.), Ibis sacré, 383 jala-kukkuta, Gallicrex cinerea, Watercock, Râle à crête, 301, 358- jala-kukkubha, idem, 138, 301, 358 jala-cara, any of the Cinclidae, esp. Cinclus pallasii, Brown Dipper, Cincle de Pallas, 43 jala-päravata, Metopidius indicus, Bronze- winged Jacana, Jacana bronzé, 304 jala-madgu, any of the Alcedinidae (small Kingfishers), Halcyonidae (large Kingfishers), Cerylidae (Pied Kingfishers (Fr. Martin-pêcheur), 155 jala-ranka, Calidris minuta, Little Stint, -Bécasseau minute, 368; or generic term for certain Scolopacidae, subfamily Tringinae (esp. Sandriper/Bécasseau), 368 jala-ranku, Porphyrio porphyrio, Purple Moorhen [P. Swamphen]. Talève sultane, 298, 368 jala-lobhin, Calidris minuta, Little Stint, Bécasseau minute, 368 jala-kikhandin, Hydrophasianus chirurgu, Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Jacana à longue queue, 305

• jala-simha, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican

/ Pélican), 370

• jalpaka-kala-cataka, Dicrurus adsimilis

[macrocercus]. (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 63 javala-kantika, Accipiter trivirgatus, Crested Goshawk, Autour huppé, 220 jängala, Francolinus pondicerianus, Grey Partridge [G. Francolin], Francolin gris, 283

• jänta-särika, Acridotheres fuscus, Jungle

Myna, Martin forestier, 86 jäyánujivi baka, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus. Black-necked Stork, Jabiru d'Asie, 391; or generic term for any of the Ciconiidae family (Stork/Cigogne, Jabiru, etc.), 392 jäla-päda, any web-footed waterbird. esp.. Rails and Crakes (Fr. Råle). Coots (Fr. Foulque), 299 jävala, Falco pelegrinoides (Shaheen. Falcon), said to be conspecific with Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 220 Birds in Sanskrit Literature jäskamada, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea Eagle, Pygargue de Pallas, 214 jihmäksa, fish-eating Strigidae (Owl / Hibou): Fish Owl/ Kétoupa, 175 jirvi, any of the Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), 167, 168 jivanjivaka, Polyplectron bicalcaratum, [Grey] Peacock Pheasant. Éperonnier chinquis, 270, 273, 274, 281 jivahara, jiväntaka, Aquila pomarina. Lesser Spotted Eagle, Aigle pomarin, 209 jürá. male of the Accipiter gentilis, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 221 jrmbha, Oriolus oriolus. [Eurasian] Golden Oriole, Loriot d'Europe. 78-79, cf. pipilaka jyestha-balaka, Casmerodius albus, Large. Egret [Great E.], Grande Aigrette, 403 jyotsná-baka, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, Chestnut Bittern (Cinnamon B.), Blongios canelle, 406 jh jhampasi, Alcedinidae (small Kingfishers), Halcyonidae (large Kingfishers), Cerylidae (Pied Kingfishers (Fr. Martin-pêcheur), 155 tikatikī. Acrocephalus dumetorum. Blyth's Reed Warbler, Rousserolle des buissons, 69 tittibha, Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled Lapwing, Vanneau indien, 357, 360: Vanellus malabaricus, Yellow-wattled Lapwing. Vanneau du Malabar, 357; Vanellus spinosus [V. duvaucelii]. Spur- winged Plover [River Lapwing]. Vanneau à éperons, 357 tisti, Numenius phaeopus, Whimbrel, Courlis corlieu, 366. tuntuka, Orthotomus sutorius, [Common] Tailorbird, Couturière à longue queue; other noisy warblers such as: Prinia socialis, Ashy Wren Warbler [Ashy Prinia], Prinia cendré; Cisticola juncidis, Streaked Fantail Warbler [Zitting Cisticola], Cisticole des joncs. 68-69 tuna, tonă, male of the Accipiter badius. Shikra, Épervier shikra, 237, 242 Index Sanskrit d damara, any of the Laridae of the Larini tribe (Gull/Goéland, Mouette), 343 dindi-mänava, Megalaima haemacephala, Crimson-breasted Barbet [Coppersmith Barbet], Barbu à plastron rouge, 124 (called Little Barbet); N.B.: Megalaima rubricapilla, Crimson-throated Barbet. [Crimson-fronted Barbet]. Barbet à couronne rouge, closely resembling. Coppersmith Barbet, but found only in the Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka. dindi-mänavaka, idem, 124, 129 dindi-manava, idcm, 124 dundula, Glaucidium cuculoides. [Asian] Barred Owlet, Chevêchette cuculoide; Glaucidium brodici, Collared (Pigmy)) Owlet, Chevêchette à collier, 178, cf. 176. duliká, any of the Passeridae, subfamily Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit), 107 dh dhinka, dhenka (Pkt), used for the Threskiornis aethiopicus [T. melano- cephalus]. White Ibis [Black-headed 1.). Ibis sacré; all Ciconiidae (Stork / Cigogne); and the Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 389 n. dhenki (Pkt), female of the Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 410 ņ nandamanaga (so! Pkt) (also nanda). Megalaima haemacephala, Crimson- breasted Barbet [Coppersmith Barbet]. Barbu à plastron rouge, 124; [N.B.: Megalaima rubricapilla, Crimson-throated Barbet [Crimson-fronted Barbet), Barbet à couronne rouge, closely resembling: Coppersmith Barbet, but found only in the i Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka. ] t takvavi, may refer to: Falco pelegrinoides. (Shaheen Falcon), said to be conspecific with Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon. Faucon pèlerin, 222, 223 tafjala. 137, a synonym for cataka 497 tamba-hamsa (P Paramatthajotikä II 277, 11), Dendrocygna bicolor, Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous Whistling-duck], Dendro- cygne fauve, 436 n., 450 tarakṣa(ka), tarakṣu, Falco jugger, Laggar Falcon, Falcon laggar; Falco cherrug. Saker Falcon, Falcon sacre, 228 talapaka-khaga, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling, Étourneau sansonnet, 84 talapāyika, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling, Étourneau sansonnet, 85 täpasa, any of the Ardeidae (Egrets, Herons, Bitterns Aigrettes, Herons, Crabiers, Blongios) and Ciconiidae (Stork, Adju- tants / Cigognes, Jabirus, Marabouts) standing on one leg, 405 tämra-cüda-kukkuta, cf. carma-cúda tämrolüka, Phodilus badius, [Oriental] Bay Owl, Phodile calong, 176, 178179 tärkṣya, a mythical bird, 199ff.; esp. Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 199, 202, 204; cf. garuda tala-cataka, Artamus fuscus, Ashy Swallow- shrike [Ashy Woodswallow], Langrayen. brun, 61; Cypsiurus parvus [C. bala- siensis], [Asian] Palm Swift, Martinet des palmes, 168 tina-hamsa (not PED, but Ja V 356,23), Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose). Anserelle del Coromandel, 450 tittira, certain Phasianidae, esp. Partridges, Francolins / Perdrix, Francolins, 269 tittiri, Francolinus francolinus. Black Partridge (Black Francolin], Francolin noir. 283 tirīta, tiriti, may refer to: Melophus lathami, Crested Bunting, Bruant huppé, 96, cf. cirilika tilaka-kantaka, Galerida cristata, Crested. Lark, Cochevis huppé, 111 tila-mayüra, Chlamydotis undulata [C. macqueeni]. Houbara [Macqueen's Bustard], Outarde houbara, 325, 329 tulika, any of the Passeridae, subfamily. Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit). 107 tuşara-kapota, Macropygia unchall. Bar- tailed Cuckoo Dove [Barred C. D.). Phasianelle onchall (sic), 257, 260 tma-catika, tma-phutkarī, small birds. frequently found in grassy areas, esp. Acrocephalus dumetorum. Blyth's Reed. Warbler, Rousserolle des buissons; Ploceus benghalensis. Black-throated Weaver, Tisserin du Bengale; Cisticola juncidis, 498 Streaked Fantail Warbler [Zitting Cisticola), Cisticole des joncs; etc., 69 trna-barhin. Eupodotis bengalensis [Houbaropsis b.). Bengal Florican, Outarde du Bengale, 330, 331 trna-hamsa, Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose]. Anserelle de Coromandel, 450 tejala-tittira, Lerwa lerwa, Snow Partridge, Lerva des neiges, 284 tailapaka, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling, Etourneau sansonnet, 84; Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia [Scaly-breasted M.]. Capucin damier, 89 tailapayikā, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling. Etourneau sansonnet, 84, 85; Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia [Scaly-breasted M.]. Capucin damier, 85, 89 tailapayr, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling. Étouracau sansonnet. 84; Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia [Scaly-breasted M.], Capucin damier, 89 tonaka, male of the Accipiter badius, Shikra, Épervier shikra, 220, 237, 242; refers to all male diurnal birds of prey, 237 tri-ketu, any of the Psittacidae (Parakeet / Perruche), 143 tri-vama-raji, Psittacula eupatria, Large Indian Parakeet [Alexandrine P.], Perruche alexandre, 118 tri-sanku, Clamator jacobinus, Pied (Crested) Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 104 tri-sankha, Cacomantis passerinus, Plaintive Cuckoo [Grey-bellied C.), Coucou à tête grise, 131 d dakşa, Falco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 226 dagatunda (Pkt). Falco jugger, Laggar Falcon, Falcon laggar; Falco cherrug. Saker Falcon, Falcon sacre, 228 (folk etymology) dagdha-kaka, Corvus ruficollis, Brown- necked Raven, Corbeau brun, 1,5 danda-kaka, Corvus corax, [Common) Raven, Grand Corbeau, 5 dadhy-anka, dadhy-ac, dadhy-afe, Copsy- chus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 47 dabbi-mukha (P), Platalea leucorodia, [Eurasian] Spoonbill, Spatule blanche, 380. 384 Birds in Sanskrit Literature darbhara-láva, any of the Turnicidae, esp. Turnix suscitator, Common Bustard Quail [Barred Buttonquail), Turnix combattant, 287 darvida, Platalea leucorodia, [Eurasian] Spoonbill, Spatule blanche, 380 dahiya(ka) (Pkt). Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 47 dätyűha, Cuculus varius, Common Hawk Cuckoo (Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra, 132; Pseudibis papillosa, Black Ibis, Ibis i noir, 224, 294, 382, 385, 386. datyauha, Amaurornis phoenicurus, White- breasted Waterhen, Råle à poitrine blanche, 124 däruna, may refer to: Dinopium benghalen- se, Golden-backed Woodpecker [Black- rumped Flameback), Pic du Bengale, 120 därv-ághata, a generic term for any of the Picidae (Woodpecker / Pic), 119, 122 diahama (Pkt), Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.), Vautour percnoptère, 193 divaukas, Clamator jacobinus, (Large) Pied (Crested) Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 104, 135 divya, divyaka, Merops orientalis, (Small) Green (or Small Indian) Bee-eater, Guêpier d'Orient, 150 disa-cakṣu, Falco tinnunculus, [Common] Kestrel, Faucon crécerelle, 233

• dirgha-dala, Urocissa erythrorhyncha, Red-

billed Blue Magpie, Pirolle à bec rouge; Urocissa flavirostris, Yellow-billed Blue. Magpie, Pirolle à bec jaune, 14 dirgha-päda(-kanka), Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant), Mara- bout argala, 392, 401 dirgha-kira, Burhinus oedicnemus, Stone Plover (Curlew) [Eurasian Thick-knee), Oedicnème criard; Burhinus giganteus. [Esacus recurvirostris], Great Stone Plover [Great Thick-knee), Oedicnème des récifs, 332 dundubhi, Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan. Cuckoo [Oriental C.], Coucou oriental; or Cuculus micropterus, Indian Cuckoo (also called Asiatic C), Coucou à ailes courtes, 129 durgā, Urocissa erythrorhyncha, Red-billed Blue Magpie, Pirolle à bec rouge; Urocissa flavirostris, Yellow-billed Blue Magpie. Pirolle à bec jaune, 13; Monticola solitarius, Blue Rock Thrush, Monticole merle-bleu, 13, 47, 48 Index Sanskrit durdura, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar /Engoulevent), 171 durdü, idem, 171 durbala (durbalika), any of the Apodidac (Swift/Martinet), 99, 165, 166 devakula-cațaka, any of the Apodidac and Hirundinidae, esp. Apus affinis, House Swift, Martinet des maisons; Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed Swallow, Hirondelle à longs brins: Hirundo daurica, (Striated) Red-rumped Swallow, 99, 167

• deva-cakata, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian

Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 461 devatti, any Laridae of the Larini tribe (Gull /Goéland, Mouette), 343 deva-hamsa, Cairina scutulata, White- winged (Wood) Duck, Canard à ailes blanches, 449 devī syämä, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 50 daitya-dvipa, may refer to: Haliacetus, albicilla, White-tailed (Sea) Eagle, Pygargue à queue blanche, 215 dronaka, Butastur teesa, White-eyed Buzzard (Eagle), Busautour aux yeux blancs, 212; Ictinaetus malayensis, Black Eagle, Aigle noir, 212; male of the Accipiter badius, Shikra, Épervier shikra, 220, 238, 242; any male diurnal bird of prey, 237 drona(-kaka), Corvus corax, [Common] Raven, Grand Corbeau, 2ff., 20 dvimukha-bhäranda, Raphus cuculiatus. Dodo, Dronte de Maurice, 399, cf. 398 dh dhatarattha (P; not PED, but Ja V 360,9; Pkt dhattaratthaga, 'ritthaga), Cygnus cygnus, Whooper Swan, Cygne chanteur, 431f. dhana-sū, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus], (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow). Drongo brillant, 62 dhanakha, Cuculus varius, Common Hawk Cuckoo (Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra. 131 dhanvana, Merops orientalis, (Small) Green (or Common Indian) Bee-cater, Guêpier d'Orient, 150 dharma-cilla, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite, Milan sacré, 244 dhavala-kapota, Streptolia deraocto. Indian Ring Dove [Eurasian Collared Dove], Tourterelle turque, 257, 258 dhavala-pandu, idem, 257, 258 499 dhavala-skandha, Pseudibis papillosa. Black Ibis, Ibis noir, 352; Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer, Bec-en-ciseaux à collier, 352 dhārāṭa, 137, a synonym for cataka dhärtarästra, Cygnus cygnus, Whooper Swan, Cygne chanteur, 427 dhüti, male of the Accipiter virgatus, Besral (Sparrow-hawk), Épervier besra, 237, 239 dhūmikä (or dhūmakā, dhümika), Falco pelegrinoides (Shaheen Falcon), is said to be conspecific with Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 199, 222, 226 dhūmyata, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus), (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 63, 65, 199 dhümra-kapota, Streptopelia tranquebarica, Red Turtle Dove [Red Collared D.J. Tourterelle à tête grise: Streptopelia senegalensis, Little Brown Dove [Laughing D.J, Tourterelle maillée, 257 dhüsara-kapota, Streptopelia senegalensis, Little Brown Dove [Laughing D.]. Tourterelle maillée, 257; or Streptopelia tranquebarica, Red Turtle Dove [Red Collared D.], Tourterelle à tête grise, 259 dhüsara-cataka, any of the Alaudidae, genera Eremoptrix and Ammomanes (Finch Lark [Sparrow Lark], Lark / Moinclette, Ammomane), 110-111 dhruva, Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer, Bec-en-ciseaux à collier. 353 chvänksa, any of the Corvidae, genus Corvus (Crow / Corbeau, Corneille), 1; as distinct from the [Common] Raven / Grand Corbeau, 2, 6, 7; Threskiornis aethiopicus [T. melanocephalus], White Ibis [Black- headed I.], Ibis sacré (considered to be a "water-crow"), 383, 386, 387 n nakta-krauńca, refers to the more nocturnal of the Ardeidae: Night Heron, Bittern / Bihoreaux, Blongios, Butors. 405 nakhasi, any of the Strigidae, genus Ketupa (Fish Owl/ Kétoupa), 175 nandi-cataka, Leiothrix lutea, Red-billed Leiothrix, Léiothrix jaune, 32 naptrka, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar / Engoulevent), 170 nakaka-kaka, Corvus frugilegus. Rook, Corbeau freux, 2, 6, 20 500 naşta-kaka, Corvus frugilegus, Rook, Corbeau freux, 6n., 20; Corvus monedula, [Eurasian] Jackdaw, Corbeau calédonien, 6.

• nahikuti (nahih kutih). Riparia riparia, Sand

Martin, Hirondelle de rivage; Hirundo rupestris, [Eurasian] Crag martin, Hirondelle de rochers. 99 nägásí, cf. garuda; Haliaeetus leucogaster. White-bellied Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre, 201, 207; Circaetus gallicus. Short-toed [Snake] Eagle, Circaète Jean-le-Blanc, 201; Spilornis cheela, Crested Serpent Eagle, Serpentaire bacha, 211 näsă-cchinnä (cf. MW näsä-chinni), Sarkidiornis melanotos, Comb Duck. Canard à bosse, 448 nisa-kara, Ichthyophaga ichthyactus, Grey- headed Fishing Eagle [G. Fish Eagle]. Pygargue à tête grise, 215. niśäntaka, cf. nakta-kraurica, 232 nişanna-śyāmā, Hirundo rustica. Common Swallow [Barn S.), Hirondelle rustique; Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed Swallow, Hirondelle à longs brins; Delichon urbica, House Martin, Hirondelle de fenêtre [now subdivided into: Delichon urbica, Northern House Martin, Hirondelle de fenêtre; Delichon dasypus, Asian House Martin, Hirondelle de Bonaparte: Delichon nepalensis, Nepal House Martin, Hirondelle du Népal), 100 nila-kantha, Coracias benghalensis. Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18; Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 18, 103; Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu. 18, 49; Passer domesticus. House Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 93; various black-throated Wagtails (Fr. Bergeronnettes), 18, 103 nila-kantha-särasa, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Black-necked Stork, Jabiru. d'Asie, 319, 321 nila-krauńca, Ardea purpurea. Purple Heron, Héron pourpré, 402, cf. 390 nila-khaga, Corvus corax, [Common] Raven, Grand Corbeau, 7 nila-griva, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17 nila-grivaka, Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard. Canard colvert, 453 nila-cataka, Niltava grandis, Large Niltava (or Niltava Flycatcher), Grand Gobe- mouche, 53; Irena puella. [Asian] Fairy Bluebird, Irène vierge, 71 Birds in Sanskrit Literature nila-cchada-syena, Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon (or Blue Hawk). Faucon pèlerin, 222 nila-cchavi, Irena puella, [Asian] Fairy Bluebird, Irène vierge, 71, 138 nila-lațvä, Niltava grandis, Large Niltava (or Niltava Flycatcher), Grand Gobemouche, 53 nila-skandha-krauñca, Grus nigricollis, Black-necked Crane, Grue à cou noir, 319. 321 nilanga, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18: Ardea cinerea, Grey Heron (or Blue Heron), Héron cendré, 18: any of the Gruidae (Crane / Grue), 18: Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu, 18 nilanga-capa, Coracias garrulus, European (Kashmir) Roller, Rollier d'Europe, 16, 20 nilanga-sarasa, Grus virgo, Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, 312, 320, 321 nilasya-käka, Corvus corone orientalis, Eastern Hooded Crow (Carrion Crow, subspecies], Corneille mantelée (?). 2, 4, 20 P paksa-kalikā, Falco subbuteo, [Eurasian] Hobby, Faucon hobereau, 221, 231, 232 paksa-gupta, Chloropsis hardwickei, Orange- bellied Chloropsis [O. Leafbird], Verdin de Harwicke, 33 pakṣi-pravara, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture). Gypacte barbu, 197 panka-kira, any of the Scolopacidae, subfamily Scolapacinae, genus Gallinago (Snipe/Bécassine), 366 pankti-cara-kurara, Grus virgo, Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, 186, 342 pancama-kaka, Corvus monedula, (Eurasian] Jackdaw, Corbeau calédonien, 2, 20 pata-kapota, Dukula aenea, Green Imperial Pigeon, Carpophage pauline, 251, 253, 255 patikutt(h)aka (so! Ja VI 538,10). Anastomus. ascitans, Openbill Stork [Asian Open-bill], Bec-ouvert indien, 396 patti-valguli, Parus xanthogenys, Yellow- checked Tit [Black-lored T.J. Mésange à joues jaunes, 22 pandu-hamsa (P; not PED, but Ja V 356,24). cf. seta-hamsa patangika, various small birds, esp. the Sylviidae (Warbler/Fauvette), 68 Index Sanskrit pati-cañcu-suka, Psittacula himalayana, Slaty-headed Parakeet, Perruche de l'Himalaya, 144 patra-värdhrinasa. Ocyceros birostris. Common Grey Hornbill [Indian G. H.J. Calao de Gingi, 161 patra-suka. Loriculus vernalis, Indian Loriquet [Vernal Hanging Parrot], Coryllis vernal, 144 patrall, Anas crecca, Common Teal, Sarcelle d'hiver; Anas querquedula, Garganey (Teal), Sarcelle d'été, 455 padeka, Accipiter gentilis, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 238 padma-puspa, any of the Pittidae (Pitta / Brève), 117 panthälaka, 160, cf. khatvanga pampaka (P), 131, a Päli equivalent for kết là ki

• pampa is not a Pkt word, 131

para-pusta, parasitic Cuckoos (family) Cuculidae). 127, cf. anya-vápa, kokila, cataka para-bhrt, idem, 127, 128 parosni, Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia [Scaly-breasted M.J. Capucin damier, 85, 89 parna-suka, 144, cf. patra-suka paryandika (or paryandikä). Hypsipetes madagascariensis [H. leucocephalus], Black Bulbul, Bulbul de Madagascar, 35, 38, 39 parvata-kaka, Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, Corneille noire; or Corvus macro- rhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed C.]. Corneille à gros bec, 7 pamsula (Pkt), male of the Eudynamys scolopacea, [Asian] Koel, Coucou koel, 129 pämsula, male of the Eudynamys scolopacea, [Asian] Koel, Coucou koël. 129; various species of Quails (Fr. Cailles), or probably any of the Turnicidae (Bustard Quail [Buttonquail]/Turnix), 289 pämsula-lava, Perdicula argoondah, Rock Bush Quail, Perdicule argoondah, 287 päka, cf. pecaka; also small Strigidae (Owlets/Chevêchette, Chevêche), 183-184 paka-hamsa (P; Paramatthajotikä II 277,12). not found in early Skt literature, may refer to: Cygnus olor. Mute Swan, Cygne tuber- culé, 427-428, 431, cf. 184, 432 päká (putrikä) + avali, 100, cf. utpatya- pakalá

• päkula (Pkt). 100, cf. utpatya-päkalā

pakolüka, 184, cf. pakai 501 pätaläkşa-yena. "Yellow-eyed Falcon", al term used by Muslim Falconers, 218 panavika, 129, 332, cf. kala-panavika pandara-grdhra. Gyps indicus, (Indian) Long-billed Vulture (or Indian Griffon). Vautour indien: Gyps himalayensis, Himalayan Griffon, Vautour de l'Himalaya; Gyps fulvus, European Griffon [Eurasian G.]. Vautour fauve (now considered to be three different species), 191 pändavika, pandavikā, Monticola solitarius, Blue Rock Thrush. Monticole merle-bleu, 47, 48, 50 pandu(-kapota), Columbidae, genus Streptopelia (Dove / Tourterelle, Colom- bine), 257 pändu-svämä. Monticola solitarius, Bluet Rock Thrush, Monticole merle-bleu, 47, 50

• paniya-käkikä (= jala-käka), Phalacrocorax

niger, Little Cormorant, Cormoran de Vieillot, 371, 372 päravata, esp. Columba livia, (Domestic) Rock Pigeon, Pigeon biset, 27, 250, 251, 255 pärusna (pärüsna). Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling, Étourneau sansonnet, 84, 85, 89 pärosni, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling, Étourneau sansonnet, 85 ("Himalayan and Finsch's Starlings" are terms which may refer to subspecies) palanka, may refer to "a pet Hawk trained i for catching birds," 216

• pasagada, -gala (Pkt), any of the

Pelecanidae (Pelican / Pélican), 370 pika, Eudynamys scolopacea, [Asian] Koel, Coucou koël; also Cuculus canorus. Eurasian (Grey or European) Cuckoo, Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan (Asiatic) Cuckoo [Oriental C.]. Coucout oriental, 128 pikänga, any of the Pittidae (Pitta / Brève); may refer to: Coracina novachollandiae, Large Cuckooshrike, Échenilleur à' masque noir, 117 pinga, pinga-cakṣu, piñgala, pingalika. Athene brama, Spotted Owlet, Chevêche brame, 177 pingal-akkhaga (Pkt), pingaläksa (Skt), Mycteria leucocephala, Painted Stork, Tantale indien, 395 pingeksena, cf. pinga piccha-bana, Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, Aigle ravisseur, 208 502 pinjola, Oriolus oriolus, [Eurasian] Golden Oriole, Loriot d'Europe; may refer to: Oriolus xanthornus, Black-headed Oriole [Black-hooded O.], Loriot à capuchon noir, 80 pindika, any of the Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), 168 pipilaka, Oriolus oriolus, [Eurasian] Golden Oriole, Loriot d'Europe, 77ff.

• pipiliya) (Pkt; pipiliya in Panha-

vägaraṇäim 1.3 18a, 31), idem, 77 (read: pippiliya, "ya), 79 pippala, Megalaima virens, Great (Hill) Himalayan) Barbet, Barbu géant, 123, 124 pippika, Merops orientalis, (Small) Green (or Common Indian) Bée-eater, Guêpier d'Orient; or another Bee-eater, 149ff. piridi (Hemacandra, Desin. 6,47) (Pkt; pirili "musical instrument" [PSM)), Lonchura malabarica, White-throated Munia [Indian Silverbill]. Capucin bec-de-plomb; Lonchura striata, White-backed Munia [White-rumped M.), Capucin domino, 45 (read: piridi), 90 pirili, pirill, Lonchura malabarica, White- throated Munia [Indian Silverbill], Capucin bec-de-plomb; and Lonchura striata, White-backed Munia [White-rumped M.]. Capucin domino, 89f. pilaka, pilaga (Ardhamågadhi), cf. pipilaka, 77,79 pita-tunda-karandava, Anas platyrhynchos. Mallard (or Wild Duck), Canard colvert, 453 pita-netră, cf. citra-netră pita-päda, pita-pädä, Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste; Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 85; also Vanellus indicus, Red- wattled Lapwing, Vanneau indien; Vanellus malabaricus, Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanneau du Malabar, 85, cf. 360 pita-bhadra-suka, Psittacula alexandri, Red- breasted Parakeet, Perruche à moustaches, 76, 140, 144 pita-munda-kalavinka, yellow-headed birds Ploceus philippinus, Baya Weaver, Tisserin baya; Ploceus manyar, Streaked Weaver, Tisserin manyar, 50, 88, 94 pita-munda-cataka, idem, 94 putini, Orthotomus sutorius, [Common] Tailorbird, Couturière à longue queue, 68 pundarika, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican / Pélican), 222, 231,370 Birds in Sanskrit Literature pundarikáksa, Butastur teesa, White-eyed Buzzard (Eagle), Busautour aux yeux blancs, 212 puttaka (P), Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 90 puttikä, a tiny bird, 90 cf. putrikä putra-gupta, 33, 144, cf. paksa-gupta putra-priya, Upupa epox, [Common] Hoopoe, Huppe fasciće, 162 putra-suka, Loriculus vernalis, Indian Loriquet [Vernal Hanging Parrot], Coryllis vernal, 144 putrikā, small birds, esp. the Warblers (Warbler / Fauvette; Ground Warbler / Tésie; Bush Warbler / Bouscarle: Wren Warbler / Prinia; Tailorbird / Couturière; Flycatcher Warbler / Pouillot; etc.), 68; the Munias, 89, 90; Zosterops palpebrosa, [Oriental] White-eye, Zostérops oriental, 112; also the Hirundinidae (Swallow, Martin Hirondelle) and the Apodidae (Swift/Martinet), 100 punya-darsana, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17 purallikä, purillaka, Prinia socialis, Ashy Wren Warbler [Ashy Prinia], Prinia cendré, 69 purusa-vak-sari, Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 82, 87 pulika, Saroglossa spiloptera, Spotted- winged Stare [Spot-winged Starling), Étourneau à ailes tachetées, 82, 83 puskara-sayika. Chlidonias hybridus. Whiskered Tern, Guifette moustac, 349 puskara-sad, puskara-säd, idem, 94, 349 puşkara-särasa, Grus leucogeranus, (Great White) Siberian Crane, Grue de Sibérie, 312 puskarakhya, idem, 311, 320 puşkarahva, 311, 320, 321 puspa-kokila, Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan (Asiatic) Cuckoo [Oriental C.], Coucou oriental, 129 puspam-dhaya, Nectarinia asiatica, Purple Sunbird, Souimanga asiatique, 115 puspa-bhast, Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia [Scaly-breasted M.). Capucin damier, 89 puspa-fakuna, any of the Phasianidae, genust Tragopan; may refer to: Tragopan satyra, Crimson Tragopan (or Horned Pheasant) [Satyr T.], Tragopan satyre, 281 puspävatamsaka, various whiskered Pycnonotidae, esp. Pycnonotus jocosus, Index Sanskrit Red-whiskered Bulbul, Bulbul orphée, 36. 37, 39 pojaní, půjaniya, Hirundo smithii, Wire- tailed Swallow, Hirondelle à longs brins, 101 pütika, a tiny bird, 90, cf. putrikä püma-küta, Urocissa erythrorhyncha, Red- billed Blue Magpie, Pirolle à bec rouge; Urocissa flavirostris, Yellow-billed Blue Magpie, Pirolle à bec jaune, 12, 14, 20 pali, Saroglossa spiloptera, Spotted-winged Stare [Spot-winged Starling). Étourneau à ailes tachetées, 82 peca, Pycnonotus cafer, Red-vented Bulbul, Bulbul à ventre rouge, 36, 39, or any large hooting Strigidae (Owl/ Hibou, Chouette), 180 pecaka, any large hooting Strigidae (Owl / Hibou, Chouette), 176, 180 poar (Pkt), Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 90 pokkhara-sätaka (P; PED takes sätaka to be another bird). Chlidonias hybridus, Whiskered Tern, Guifette moustac, 157, 349m 1 potiyaka, Orthotomus sutorius, (Common) Tailorbird, Couturière à longue queue, 69 pondariga (Pkt), any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican/Pélican), 370 potaki, cf. podak potha-vartikä, Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark. Alouette pispolette, 110 podaki, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 45, 46 paundraka-lava, Turnix tanki, [Yellow- legged] Buttonquail, Turnix indien, 287 pratisthana, birds of prey not used for hawking, 240: Circus macrourus. Pale Harrier [Pallid H.], Busard pale; Circus pygargus, Montagu's Harrier, Busard cendré, 240, 247 pratudáh, "peckers" (Fr. picoreurs), a group of birds identified in Ayurvedic texts, XV, 28, 99, 129, 132, 164, 167, passim prabhadraka, white Wagtails, esp. Motacilla alba, White Wagtail, Bergeronnette grise (or its subspecies), 104 pravala-päda. Recurvirostra avosetta. [Pied] Avocet, Avocette élégante, 361 prasyena, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 199 prasahab, "birds of prey" (Fr. prédateurs), a group of birds identified in Ayurvedic texts, XV, 341. passim 503 prājika, a common name for Hawks in general, 236; esp. Accipiter gentilis, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 220, 221, 235 právära-kama, any long-eared Strigidae, genera Bubo (Horned Owl / Grand-duc) and Ketupa (Fish Owl / Kétoupa), 180, 181 präsada-kukkuta, Columba livia, (Domestic) Rock Pigeon, Pigeon biset, 137 priyaka, Surniculus lugubris. Drongo Cuckoo, Coucou surnicou, 131, 132 priyatmaja, any of the Bucerotidae (Hornbill /Calao), 159, 160, 162 priyapatykanka, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea-Eagle (Pallas's Fish Eagle), Pygargue de Pallas, 213, 243, 244, 245 priyasana-hamsa, Anas penelope, (Eurasian] Wigeon, Canard siffleur, 4541. plava, any of the Phalocrocoracidae (Cormorant/Cormorant), 299, 371ff. plavab, "water-birds" (Fr. "nageurs"), a group of birds identified in Ayurvedic texts, XV, 299, 341, passim ph phala-priya-kaka, Nucifraga caryocatactes, [Spotted] Nutcracker, Cassenoix moucheté, 11, 20 phä-kära, Garrulax ruficollis, Rufous-necked Laughingthrush, Garrulaxe à col roux, 28 phala-khela, Coturnix coturnix, Grey Quail [Common Q.J. Caille des blés, 285, cf. 109 phinga, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus]. (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 199 phussa-kokila (P; Ja V 420,13 et passim), Cuculus canorus, Eurasian (Grey or European) Cuckoo, Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan (Asiatic) Cuckoo [Oriental C.], Coucou oriental, 128f. pheñca, pheñcáka, phenjätaka, Pycnonotus cafer, Red-vented Bulbul, Bulbul à ventre rouge, 36, 39 b baka, a generic term for all Ciconiidae (Stork / Cigogne). Threskiornithidae (Ibis / Ibis) and Ardeidae (Heron / Héron), 95, 136; esp. Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant), Marabout argala; Threskiornis aethiopicus (T. melanocephalus]. White Ibis (Black- headed 1.]. Ibis sacré, 383, 386, 387; or 504 Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose (due to its superficial resemblance to a Stork, 409 baka (Pkt), Leptoptilos dubius. Adjutant Stork (Greater Adjutant], Marabout argala. 395 bakara, barkara, Tragopan satyra, Crimson Tragopan (or Horned Pheasant) [Satyr T.]. Tragopan satyre; or Tragopan melano- cephalus, Western Tragopan, Tragopan de Hastings, 280 baka-raja, Ciconia ciconia, White Stork, Cigogne blanche, 390 bakeru, Casmerodius albus, Large Egret i [Great E.), Grande aigrette, 402 bandhura-karandava, Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard (or Wild Duck), Canard colvert, 453 babhru, Cuculus varius, Common Hawki Cuckoo (or Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra, 131 barkara, cf. bakara barhin, barhina, Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu, 55, 277 bala, Haliaeetus albicilla, White-tailed (Sea) Eagle, Pygargue à queue blanche, 213. baláka, Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 409ff., 414, 418 balaka, Mesophoyx intermedia, Smaller. Egret [Intermediate E.), Héron intermédiaire; may also refer to: Egretta garzetta, Little Egret, Aigrette garzette, 2, 403; female of the Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 411, 412,419 balaka (P), Mesophoyx intermedia, Smaller Egret [Intermediate E.], Héron intermé- diaire, 403 balakākṣa-vāja, Accipiter gentilis, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes (juvenile), 237 balákänka-väja, Accipiter gentilis, [Nor- thern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 219, 237 balakikā, Egretta garzetta. Little Egret, Aigrette garzette, 2, 403; also Bubulcus ibis, Cattle Egret, Héron garde-boeufs, 404 bali-pusta (-käka or -vayasa), Corvus splen- dens, House Crow, Corbeau familier, 2 bali-bhuk-cataka, Passer domesticus, House Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 93 bahula-griva, Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu, bidala, Phodilus badius, [Oriental] Bay Owl, Phodile calong, 179 Birds in Sanskrit Literature bindu-rekhaka, Rhipidura aureola, White- browed Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipidure à grands sourcils; Rhipidura albicollis, White-throated Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipi- dure à gorge blanche, 54 brhac-cancu-baka, Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant Stork (Greater Adjutant), Mara- bout argala, 392 brhad-baka, Mycteria leucocephala, Painted Stork, Tantale indien, 395 brhad-rüpa, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle. Owl [Spot-bellied E. O.], Grand-duc du Népal, 181 brähmi cați, Alauda gulgula, Indian Small Skylark [Oriental Skylark). Alouette gulgule; or Alauda arvensis, (Eurasian) Skylark, Alouette des champs, 108 bh bhata-kukkuta, Pterocles exustus, Common Sandgrouse [Chestnut-bellied S.], Ganga à ventre brun, 265 bhandu-tittira, Scolopax rusticola, [Eurasian] Woodcock, Bécasse des bois, 367 bhadra-nama, Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.], Bergeronnette grise, 106 bhadra-paksi, Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, as an auspicious bird, 420 bhayankara, Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, Aigle ravisseur, 208 bharadvāja, Alauda gulgula, Indian Small Skylark [Oriental Skylark], Alouette gulgule; or Alauda arvensis, [Eurasian] Skylark, Alouette des champs, 50, 108 bhallaka, bhalluka, Ictinactus malayensis, Black Eagle, Aigle noir, 211, 231 bhasa, any of the Corvidae, genus Dendrocitta (Treepie / Témia), 12, 13, 231 bhasma-cchavi-kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, Corbeau familier, 2, 4 bhandika, any of the Hirundinidae (Swallow, Martin/Hirondelle), 99, 165 bharanda (Pkt), cf. bherunda bharati, bharat vyoma-lásikä, 108, 109, cf bharadvāja bhäradvaja, 50, 99, cf. bharadvaja bhäradvāji, 109, cf. bharadvaja bhärfta, gregarious and crop-damaging birds, subfamily Emberizinae (Bunting / Bruant). esp. Emberiza melanocephala. Black- headed Bunting. Bruant mélanocéphale; Emberiza bruniceps, Red-headed Bunting. Bruant à tête rousse; also Emberiza Index Sanskrit buchanani, Grey-necked Bunting, Bruant à cou gris; Emberiza hortulana, Ortolan Bunting, Bruant ortolan, 96 bhasa, Gypactus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu, 181. 188, 191, 192, 195, 199; also Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.), Vautour percnoptère, 191, 199, 246 bhäsaka, Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.J. Vautour percnoptère, 188, 191 bhäsolüka, Bubo coromandus, Dusky Homed Owl [Dusky Eagle O.]. Grand-duc de Coromandel, 181 bhinkära, bhinga, bhingära(ka) (Pkt), birds of the subfamily Dicrurinae, tribe Dicrunini (Drongo/Drongo), 64 bhilunga (Pkt; Rayapasenaijja 703), cf. bherunda bhiru, various birds of subfamily. Emberizinae (Bunting / Bruant), cf. anna- düşaka, bharita bhū-kaka, Pseudibis papillosa, Black lbis, Ibis noir, 383 bhümi-saya, any of the Alaudidae, genera Eremoptrix and Ammomanes (Finch Lark [Sparrow Lark], Lark / Moinelette, Ammo- mane), 110. bha-linga-sakuni, Pluvianus aegyptius, African Plover, Pluvian fluviatile, 362, 363 bhü-särika, Turdoides striatus, Jungle Babbler, Cratérope de brousse, 30 bhrnga, any of the Dicruridae (Drongo / Drongo), esp. Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus]. (Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 62, 63, 65, 131, 132 bhrnga-raja, Dicrurus paradiseus, Greater (or Large) Racket-tailed Drongo, Drongo à raquettes, 49, 64-65, 144 bhrgarola, Nectarinia asiatica, Purple Sunbird, Souimanga asiatique, 114 bhedasi, Loriculus vernalis, Indian Loriquet [Vernal Hanging Parrot], Coryllis vernal, 144 bherunda (Pkt), Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant Stork (Greater Adjutant]. Marabout argala, 397, 399 bhorita, 96, cf. bharita m 505 manju-päthaka, used to describe various Psittacidae (Parrot / Perruche) which are able to talk, 143 manju-plava, Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard (or Wild Duck), Canard colvert, 453 manjula-dátyüha, Porphyrio porphyrio, Purple Moorhen [Purple Swamphen). Talève sultane, 292, 298 mañjulītaka, mañjuliyaka, Megalaima. virens, Great (Hill Himalayan) Barbet, Barbu géant, 124 mani-kantha, Coracias benghalensis, Indian, Roller, Rollier indien, 17 mani-täraka, Grus antigone, Sarus (or Indian) Crane, Grue antigone, 31, 316 mani-tunda(ka), Pomatorhinus ferruginosus, Coral-billed Scimitar Babbler, Pomatorhin à bec corail; or Turdus boulboul, Grey- winged Blackbird, Merle à ailes grises, 31. 49 mani-tunda-kalavinka, Turdus merula, [Eurasian] Blackbird, Merle noir, 50 mani-tunda-fyämä, idem, 50 mani-tunda-karandava, Mergus merganser, Common Merganser (or Eastern Goosander), Grand Harle, 449, 459 manicaka, Alcedo atthis, Common (or Indian) Kingfisher, Martin-pêcheur d'Europe, 156 matsya-kurara. Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea-Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle]. Pygargue de Pallas, 213 matsya-ranka, any of the Alcedinidae (Kingfisher / Martin-pêcheur), 155, 158, 186; matsya-ranka(-yena), Pandion haliactus, Osprey, Balbuzard pêcheur, 155, 185, 186; or various Fish or Sea Eagles (Fr. Pygargues), 155, 185, 186, 213 (cf. H: macchamanga, maccharanga), may refer to any of the Sulidae (Booby / Fou), 376 madana-särikä, Gracula religiosa, Hill Mynal (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 81 madgu, Anhinga rufa, Darter (or Snakebird), Anhinga d'Afrique, 272, 273 maddälaka (P), may refer to: Cuculus: saturatus, Himalayan Cuckoo [Oriental C.), Coucou oriental, 129 madhuka-srivada, Aegithina tiphia, Com- mon lora, Petit lora, 31, 50 madhu-kantha, 110, cf. kala-kantha, madhu- ghosa 506 madhu-kara, Nectarinia asiatica, Purple : Sunbird, Souimanga asiatique, 114, 115 madhu-ghosa, sweet-voiced Cuculidae Cuculus canorus, (Eurasian] (or Grey) Cuckoo, Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan Cuckoo [Oriental C.], Coucou oriental, 128 madhupa(-khaga), 115, cf. madhu-kara madhu-särika, Sturnus roseus, Rosy Pastor [Rosy Starling), Étourneau roselin, 86 madhu-hä, Pernis ptilorhyncus, (Indian. Crested) Honey Buzzard [Oriental H. B.J. Bondrée orientale, 248 manahsila-cataka, Tarsiger chrysacus, Golden Bush Robin, Rossignol doré, 52 manusya-vadana-bhäranda, Gypaetus barba- tus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture). Gypačte barbu, 399 manosila-hamsa (P; not PED, but Ja Vi 356,24), Dendrocygna bicolor. Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous Whistling-duck), Dendrocygne fauve, 450 mayana (Pkt) (madaná is likely incorrect). Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 29 n. 2 mayüra, Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl), Paon bleu, 55, 270 mayüraka, Lophophorus impejanus, Impeyan Pheasant [Himalayan Monal], Lophophore resplendissant, 271, 277 mayüra-kukkuta, idem, 257, 277ff mayüra-ghni, Hieraaetus fasciatus, Bonelli's Eagle, Aigle de Bonelli, 211 maru-baka, any of the Otididae (Bustard / Outarde), 326 marula, Fulica atra, [Common] Coot, Foulque macroule, 3001 malina, Anas strepera, Gadwall, Canard. chipeau, 454 mallika, Cygnus olor, Mute Swan, Cygne- tyberculé, 427 mallikakṣa(-hamsa), Aythya nyroca, White- eyed Pochard or Ferruginous Duck [Ferruginous Pochard]. Fuligule nyroca, 428, 458

• mahari (Pkt), Copsychus saularis, [Oriental]

Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 47 maha ukkusa (P), 214, cf. following entry maha utkrosa, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea-Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle]. Pygargue de Pallas, 214 maha-kanka, may refer to: Ardea insignis. (Great) White-bellied Heron. Héron impérial, 402 Birds in Sanskrit Literature maha-kausika, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle Owl [Spot-bellied E. O.], Grand-duc du Népal, 176, 181, 182 maha-krauñca, Grus leucogeranus, Great White (Siberian) Crane, Grue de Sibérie, 319 maha-cancu-baka. Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant), Marabout argala, 392 maha-pakṣī, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle Owl [Spot-bellied E. O.), Grand-duc dul Népal, 176, 182; any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican/Pélican), 370 maha-prāna, any black Corvidae, tribe. Corvini, genus Corvus, except the Common Raven (Fr. Grand Corbeau), 31 maha-plava, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican /Pélican), 370 maha-muktaka, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 206 maha-yogi, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18; domestic Cock, 18 maha-rävana-vāja, "Icelander", a form of the Falco rusticolus, Gyrfalcon, Faucon gerfaut, 219 [N. B. A term used to refer to a form (Falco rusticolus candicans Gmelin) which is no longer classified in this way.] maha-vira, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 206 maha-sveta, Casmerodius albus, Large Egret [Great E.]. Grande aigrette, 402 maha-suparna, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himal- ayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 206 mahä-hamsa, any of the Anatidae, genus Cygnus (Swan/Cygne), 422, 428 majala, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller. Rollier indien, 17, 18. mätr-nindaka, any of the Bucerotidae (Hornbill / Calao), 159 malaya, Spilornis cheela, Crested Serpent. Eagle, Serpentaire bacha, 212 mälika, Aythya fuligula, Tufted Duck (or Pochard), Fuligule morillon, 458 mäsa-vartikā, Calandrella rufescens. Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark. Alouette pispolette, 110 mithunin, Motacilla alba, White Wagtail. Bergeronnette grise, 106 mina-ranka, any of the Alcedinidae (Kingfisher / Martin-pêcheur), 155, minämrina, Motacilla alba, White Wagtail. Bergeronnette grise, 106 Index Sanskrit musti, mustika, Microhierax caerulescens. Red-legged Falconet [Collared F.]. Fauconnet à collier, 235 mrga, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu; may. rather refer to: Haliaeetus leucoryphus. Pallas's Sea-Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle), Pygargue de Pallas, 229 peregrinus, mrgendra-cataka, Falco Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 222 mmála-kantha, Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 408, 411,412 megha-cintaka, 137, a synonym for cataka meghänanda, female of the Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 411, 418, 419 meşa-hrt, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (Lamb-vulture) (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaete barbu; also Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 195 maukali, maukuli, any black Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus, esp. Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, Corneille noire; Corvus. macrorhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed C.], Comeille à gros bec, 3, 5, 6, 8 maudgali, may refer to: Corvus frugilegus, Rook, Corbeau freux, or cf. maukali. y yaksa-kunapi, Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste, 85 yava-gandiká, female of the Buceros. bicornis, Great Hornbill, Calao bicorne, 160 yavala-kanthika, Accipiter trivirgatus, Crested Goshawk, Autour huppé (northern form), 238, 241 yava-hara, Emberiza buchanani, Grey- necked Bunting, Bruant à cou gris; Emberiza hortulana, Ortolan Bunting, Bruant ortolan, 96 yavälaka-kukkuta, Lophura leucomelanos, Kalij Pheasant, Faisan leucomèle, 275 yaştika, Gallicrex cinerea, Watercock, Râle à crête, 301, 358; or Himantopus himan- topus, Black-winged Stilt. Échasse blanche, 358 507 rakta-kantha, Erithacus calliope [Luscinial c.1. [Siberian] Rubythroat, Rossignol calliope, 48 rakta-kantha-kapota, Chalcophaps indica, Emerald Dove, Colombine turvert, 257, 260, 262 rakta-griva(-kapota), idem, 262 rakta-cancu, Netta rufina [Rhodonessa n.) Red-crested Pochard, Nette rousse, 457; cf. rakta-kiraka rakta-tunda, any of the Psittacidae (Parakeet /Perruche), 143 rakta-drona(-käka), Corvus ruficollis. Brown-necked Raven, Corbeau brun, 1, 5, 20 rakta-näsika, may refer to: Tyto alba. Barn (White, Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173; seems to be a wrong reading of vakra- näsika: Strix aluco, (Himalayan) Wood Owl [Tawny O.), Chouette hulotte, 173, 177n rakta-päda, Ciconia ciconia, White Stork, Cigogne blanche; Ciconia nigra, Black Stork, Cigogne noire; Ciconia episcopus, White-necked Stork [Woolly-necked S.J. Cigogne épiscopale; Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Black-necked Stork, Jabiru. d'Asie, 390 rakta-pada-tunda, Ciconia ciconia, White Stork. Cigogne blanche; Ciconia nigra, Black Stork, Cigogne noire, 390 rakta-mastaka-lakṣmana, Grus antigone, Sarus (Indian) Crane, Grué antigone, 219. 321 rakta-mürdhan, 457, cf. rakta-Sirsaka rakta-vartma(ka), Catreus wallichii, Chir Pheasant [Cheer PJ, Faisan de Wallich; Lophura leucomelanos, Kalij Pheasant, Faisan leucomèle, 275 rakta-sirsa, various red-headed Fringillinae, esp. the Rosefinches (Fr. Roselins), 94; Pseudibis papillosa, Black Ibis, Ibis noir. 352 rakta-Sirsaka, Netta rufina [Rhodonessa n.), Red-crested Pochard, Nette rousse; Rhodo- nessa caryophyllacea. Pink-headed Duck, Nette à cou rose; Aythya ferina, Common Pochard, Fuligule milouin, 449, 457 rakta-Sirsa-kalavinka, cf. rakta-sirsa, 50, 93 raktáksa-hamsa, Cairina scutulata, White- winged (Wood) Duck, Canard à ailes. blanches, 449 508 raktänga, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) Vulture, Vautour royal, 1881 raghata, Falco jugger, Lagger Falcon, Faucon laggar, 227 "Cygnus columbianus davidi Swinhoe 1870, Swinhoe's Swan, known from the unique type from Tientsin, in Hopey, China, is probably a young C (columbianus) bewickii"]; Cygnus olor, Mute Swan, Cygne tuberculé, 433 n. räji-suka, Psarisomus dalhousiae, Long- tailed Broadbill, Eurylaime psittacin, 118. rukkha-kotaka (P), any of the Picidae. (Woodpecker/Pic), 54n 2, 119 rucaka-päravata, Columba pulchricollis, Ashy Wood Pigeon, Pigeon cendré; Columba palumbus, [Common] Wood Pigeon, Pigeon ramier, 256 rocisnu, Leiothrix lutea, Red-billed Liothrix, Léiothrix jaune, 32 rana-pakṣī, Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, ropanākā, Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Aigle ravisseur, 208 rana-matta, idem, 208 rangana(-yena). Falco tinnunculus, [Common] Kestrel, Faucon crécerelle. 155. 220, 233 rajani-baka, any nocturnal Ardeidae (Night Herons and various Bitterns / Fr.. Bihoreaux and Blongios), except the Botaurus stellaris, [Great] Bittern, Butor étoilé, 405 rajju-dala, rajju-dalaka, Terpsiphone paradisi, Paradise Flycatcher, Tchitrec del paradis, 14, 54 rajju-väla, idem, 54ff. rapalankarana-kanka, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite, Milan sacré, 243 rata-nidhi, Motacilla alba, White Wagtail, Bergeronnette grise, 106 as rală, certain noisy ground insects, incorrectly identified Bulbuls (family Pycnonotidae), 35, 38, 39, cf. kamiyaka ravi-hamsa (P; Ja VI 539,15), Dendrocygna bicolor, Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous Whistling-duck, Dendrocygne fauve, 450 raga-paksi, Aquila rapax. Tawny Eagle. Aigle ravisseur, 208 Birds in Sanskrit Literature raja-putrikā, Charadrius dubius, Little Ringed Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 357; Charadrius placidus, Long-billed (Ringed) Plover, Pluvier à long bec, 357 raja-baka, Ciconia ciconia, White Stork, Cigogne blanche, 390 raja-bhattikä, 357, cf. raja-putrikā raja-vihangama, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17 rája-suka, Psittacula eupatria, Large Indian Parakeet (Alexandrine P.]. Perruche alexandre, 143 rája-särasa. Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu, 270 raja-hamsa, any of the Anatidae, genus Cygnus (Cygnus cygnus, Whooper Swan, Cygne chanteur; Cygnus olor, Mute Swan, Cygne tuberculé), 426ff.; Anser anser. Greylag Goose, Oie cendrée, 436, 437, 440 raja-hamsa (P), Cygnus cygnus, Whooper Swan, Cygne chanteur, Anser indicus, Bar- headed Goose, Oie à tête barrée, 427f.; Cygnus columbianus davidi, "Chinese Swan" [Tundra Swan]. Cygne siffleur, 430 [N.B. According to Sibley and Monroe, Grackle), Mainate religieux, 811 rohini, rohinikä, Anas crecca, Common Teal, Sarcelle d'hiver, 455 1 lakṣmaṇa, Grus antigone, Sarus (Indian) Crane, Grue antigone, 312 lagna, female of the Falco jugger, Lagger Falcon, Faucon laggar, 220, 221, 227 laghu-jangala, 286, cf. alpa-kapiñjala langana, male of the Falco jugger, Lagger Falcon, Faucon laggar, 227; cf. rangana(- Syena) latukikä, Amandava amandava, Red Munia [Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, 91 latasaka, various Laniidae (Shrike / Pie- grièche), 57 latva, any of the Pycnonotidae (Bulbul / Bulbul), 34ff.; Pycnonotus leucogenys, White-checked Bulbul [Himalayan B.J. Bulbul à joues blanches, 34, 37, 54, 57; also Pycnonotus leucotis, White-eared Bulbul, Bulbul à oreillons blancs; Pycnonotus melanicterus, Black-headed Yellow Bulbul [Black-crested B.], Bulbul à tête noire, 37; Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispolette, 35; Rhipidura aureola, White- browed Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipidure à grands sourcils; and Rhipidura albicollis, White-throated Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipidure à gorge blanche, 35, 53, 54, 90 latväkä, Amandava amandava, Red Munia [Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, 53, 54,91 lapa(ka-sakuna) (P), may refer to: Turnix suscitator, Common Bustard-Quail [Barred Buttonquail]. Turnix combattant, 289 Index Sanskrit lalaka, Amandava amandava, Red Munial [Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, 91 lava, may have been used to refer to any of the Turnicidae (Bustard Quail [Button- quail]/Turnix); smaller than the Common or Grey Quail (Coturnix coturnix, Fr. Caille des blés). Bush Quails (Fr. Perdicules), came to be regarded as varieties of lava, 285ff., 291 lopa, lopayikā, the smaller Quails (Bush Quails Perdicules) and all Turnicidae (Bustard Quail [Buttonquail] / Fr. Turnix), 286, 288, 291 loha, Harpactes erythrocephalus, Red-headed Trogon, Trogon à tête rouge, 164 loha-tunda-käkola (or-väyasa), Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, Red-billed Chough, Crave à bec rouge, 6, 10, 11 loha-pakst, loha-prstha, 164, cf. loha Joha-prsta-kanka, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite, Milan sacré, 213, 242, 243 lohändi sakuni, Falco tinnunculus, [Common] Kestrel, Faucon crécerelle, 233 lohitä, Anas crecca, Common Teal, Sarcelle d'hiver, 455 V vakra-tunda, any of the Psittacidae (Parakeet /Perruche), 143 vakra-näsa, may refer to: Strix aluco, (Himalayan) Wood Owl, Chouette hulotte, 177 vaca, may refer to a Parrot (Fr. Perruche), 142 vacă, may refer to: Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 142 vajra-niskambha, cf. garuda, a mythical bird; or Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 207 vañculaka, may refer to any of the Gaviidae (Diver or Loon/Plongeon), 463 vanjula, any of the Cinclidae (Dipper / Cincle), esp. Cinclus pallasii, Brown Dipper, Cincle de Pallas, 43; Podiceps. ruficollis [Tachybaptus r.], Little Grebe (or Babchick), Grèbe castagneux, 43, 461 vanjulaka, Podiceps nigricollis, Black- necked Grebe, Grèbe à cou noir, 462; Podiceps cristatus, Great Crested Grebe, Grèbe huppé, 462, 463 vata, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu, 195 vata-hä, Megalaima virens, Great (Hill) Himalayan) Barbet, Barbu géant, 124 509 vadabha (Skt, not Pkt!), idem, 124 vana-kaka, 8, 10, 20, cf. aranya-kaka vana-kukkuta, Gallus gallus, Red Junglefowl (Common or Wild Cock), Coq bankiva, 273 vana-kulinga, vana-cataka, tree-sparrows in general, as distinct from the grha-kulinga (House Sparrow / Moineau domestique), 92,95 vana-casa, one of the Corvidae, tribe. Corvini, genus Garrulus (Jay / Geai), 16. 20 vara-cataka, probably refers to the various Rosefinches or to the Scarlet Finch (Fr. Roselins), 93 varanda, Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 81 vara-hamsa, Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 408, 409, 412, 420 varişã-priya, Cacomantis passerinus, Plaintive Cuckoo [Grey-bellied C.]. Coucou à tête grise, 131 varistha-tittira, Tetraogallus himalayensis, Himalayan Snowcock. Tétraogalle de l'Himalaya, 284 vartaka (with variants värtäka, värtaka, etc.), the largest Quail: Coturnix coturnix. Grey Quail [Common Q.], Caille des blés, 109,285; Quails in general, 289 vartaki, variant of vartika, not to be confused with Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispolette, 109 vartikā, smaller Quails: Coturnix coromandelica, Black-breasted Quail [Rain Q.J. Caille nattée; Coturnix chinensis, Blue-breasted Quail, Caille peinte, 285; any Quails, 289; not to be confused with: Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispolette, 109 varti-cataka, Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispolette, 109 vartira, Bushquails (Fr. Perdicules), similar to small Partridges: Perdicula asiatica, Jungle Bush Quail, Perdicule rousse-gorge, Perdicula argoondah, Rock Bush Quail, Perdicule argoondah, 286, 287 vartirika, cf. vartira vartulakṣa, Hieraaetus fasciatus, Bonelli's Eagle, Aigle de Bonelli, 211 vartulaksa-syena, idem, 211 varttaka, varttaka, not to be confused with Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) 510 Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispolette, 109; cf. vartaka vardhamana-kapota, Dukula aenea, Green Imperial Pigeon, Carpophage pauline, 251, 253, 255 varsa-priya, Cacomantis passerinus, Plaintive Cuckoo [Grey-bellied C.]. Coucou à tête grise, 131 valgulā, Burhinus ocdicnemus, Stone Plover (Curlew) [Eurasian Thick-knee]. Oedicnème criard, 39 väka, Nycticorax nycticorax, (Black- crowned] Night Heron, Bihoreau gris, 405 vák-kára, noisy birds including Laughingthrushes (Garrulaxes) and Babblers (Cratéropes), 28 vaja, Accipiter gentilis, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 220, 221, 235ff., 241 vaja-raja, Spizactus cirrhatus, Crested Hawk Eagle [Changeable H. E.J. Aigle huppé, 211 vāji, vājika, Accipiter gentilis, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 220, 236 vāji, Accipiter gentilis, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 220, 235, 236, 241 vätäsin, Apus affinis, (Common) House Swift, Martinet des maisons, 166 vayasa, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus (Crow / Corbeau, Corneille), Iff.; esp. Corvus splendens, House Crow, Corbeau familier, 2 vayasantaka uluka, Bubo coromandus, Dusky Horned Owl [Dusky Eagle O.]. Grand-duc de Coromandel, 181 vărata, Eupodotis bengalensis [Houbaropsis b.), Bengal Florican, Outarde du Bengale, 325, 330 varana, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande Outarde, 327, 328 väri-kanka, Ardea cinerea, Grey Heron, Héron cendré, 400, 401 vārtika, not to be confused with: Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispolette, 109; cf. vartaka värdhrīnasa, any of the Bucerotidae (Hornbill / Calao), 159, 161, including the Aceros nipalensis, Rufous-necked Hornbill, Calao à cou roux, 159, 160 väsa, Accipiter nisus, Indian Sparrowhawk [Eurasian S.), Épervier d'Europe; Accipiter gularis, Asiatic Sparrowhawk JJapanese S.J. Épervier du Japon, 220ff., 236; general term for small Hawks, 237 vikakara, Pterocles indicus, Painted Sandgrouse, Ganga indien, 265 Birds in Sanskrit Literature vit-särika, Sturnus contra. [Asian] Pied Myna, Étourneau pic, 85, 87 vidīgaya, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande Outarde, 328 visālākṣa, cf. garuda, a mythical bird; esp. Aquila chrysactos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 207 visoka, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18, domestic Cock, 18 visvaka, any of the Glareolidae, subfamily Glareolinae, genus Glareola (Pratincole / Glaréole), 335

• visuvi, idem, 335

viskiräb, "scratchers" (Fr. "gratteurs"), at group of birds identified in Ayurvedic texts, XV, 28, 92, 137, 170, 268, passim vişnu-dharma, 207, cf. visäläksa vişnu-lingaka, Pericrocotus flammeus, Scarlet Minivet, Grand Minivet; Pericrocotus brevirostris, Short-billed Minivet, Minivet à bec court, 58, 59 vihära, Rhipidura aureola, White-browed Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipidure à grands sourcils, 54 vici-kaka, any of the Laridae, genus Larus (Gull /Goéland, Mouette), 343 vijana, a kind of Phacsant (Fr. Faisan), 273 vrksa-kukkuta(-sakuna), a generic term for Picidae (Woodpecker / Pic). 26, 119 vrtti-tittiri, Francolinus gularis, Swamp Partridge (S. Francolin), Francolin multi- raic, 284 vyddha-kāka, Corvus corax, [Common] Raven, Grand Corbeau, 4, 5, 20 vrsayana, Passer domesticus, House: Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92 vrsärava, Cuculus varius, Common Hawk Cuckoo (or Brainfever Bird). Coucou shikra, 168, 169 velädhara, Dromas ardeola, Crab-plover, Drome ardéole, 336; Raphus cuculiatus, Dodo, Dronte de Maurice, 398f. vesara, male of the Accipiter virgatus, Besra (Sparrow-hawk), Épervier besra, 220, 221; Accipiter nisus, [Eurasian] Sparrowhawk, Épervier d'Europe, 220, 236 vesará, small Hawks, 237 vainateya, cf. garuda; esp. Aquila chrysactos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 192, 199 vailätaka, Dromas ardeola, Crab-plover, Drome ardéole, 336 vyaghinasa (P; *vyägghinasa is likely. incorrect; not in PED, but Ja VI vs 2099 v. lohalalpittha), any of the Bucerotidae (Hornbill / Calao), including the Aceros Index Sanskrit nipalensis, Rufous-necked Hornbill, Calao à cou roux, 159 vyangin kuff, Apus affinis, (Common) House Swift, Martinet des maisons, 166 vyāghräta, Calandrella rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispo- lette, 109 vyoma-läsikä, Alauda gulgula, Indian Small Skylark [Oriental Skylark], Alouette gulgule; or Alauda arvensis, (Eurasian] Skylark, Alouette des champs, 109, 155 Ś Sakatāra, Sakațála. Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.J. Vautour percnoptère, 193 Sakatavila, Fulica atra, [Common] Cool, Foulque macroule, 300 sakuna, Gyps indicus, (Indian) Long-billed Vulture (or Indian Griffon). Vautour indien, 191 Sakuna-grdhra, idem, 188 sakuni, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black K.J. Milan noir, 1, 245, 246 Sakunta, a bird in general, 58; Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.]. Vautour percnoptère, 188, 192-192; Gypactus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu, 192, 193 sakuntaka, a bird in general, 58 Sakunta-balaka, a small bird in general, 90- sakuntika, a small bird, explained as a kapiñjalf: female of the Francolinus pondicerianus, Grey Partridge [Grey Francolin), Francolin gris, 58; or Bush Quails (Fr. Perdicules), cf. alpa-kapinjala Sankara, Sturnus pagodarum, Brahmany Myna [B. Starling]. Étourneau des pagodes, 86 Sanku-hamsa, Anas acuta, [Northern] Pintail, Canard pilet, 455 Sata-patra, Psittacula cupatria, Large Indian Parakeet [Alexandrine P.]. Perruche alexandre: Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu; various Picidae (Woodpecker / Pic), 119 sata-patra-suka, Psittacula cupatria. Large. Indian Parakeet [Alexandrine P.J. Perruche alexandre, 143 Sabalikā, Elanus caeruleus, Black-winged Kite (Black-shouldered K.J. Élanion blac (or blanc), 246 511 Sara-kaulika, Ploccus benghalensis, Black- throated Weaver [Black-breasted W.]. Tisserin du Bengale, 89 sara-cataka, any of the Silviidae, subfamily. Acrocephalinac, genus Acrocephalus (Reed Warbler/Rousserolle), 69 Sarabha, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican / Pélican), 231, 370 Sarabhr, Saroglossa spiloptera, Spotted- winged Stare [Spot-winged Starling]. Étourneau à ailes tachetées, 82 Sarātikā (sarātī), Threskiornis aethiopicus [T. melanocephalus]. White Ibis [Black- headed I.], Ibis sacré, 353, cf. 382 sarāti, Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer, Bec-en-ciscaux à collier, 353 sarări, idem, 352, 353, 450 Sarärf, idem, 351-353, 450 Sarali, Sarall, Dendrocygna javanica, Lesser Whistling Teal [Lesser Whistling-duck], Dendrocygne siffleur; Dendrocygnal bicolor, Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous) Whistling-duck, Dendrocygne fauve, 353, 450 śasa-ghati, various Hawk Eagles (Fr. Aigle montagnard, Aigle huppé, Aigle botté, etc.), 210 Sasaghnr, idem, 199, 210, 211 śasāda, idem, 210, 211, 220, 221 Sasada-syena, idem, 210; Spizactus Crested Hawk Eagle. [Changeable H. E.), Aigle huppé, 210 śasolūka, Asio otus, Long-cared Owl, Hibou moyen-duc, 179 cirrhatus, sakuneya, according to Dave, auspicious birds in general, 177 Sänvali, Eupodotis bengalensis [Houbaropsis. b.), Bengal Florican, Outarde du Bengale, 330 Sära-pada, Ithaginis cruentus, Blood Pheasant, Ithagine ensanglantée, 281 śärikā, Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux (talking cage- bird); Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste (noisy bird of ill omen), 81f. Särga, Särnga(ka), any of the Meropidae (Bee-eater/Guêpier), 148, 149, 151, 152 śärnga, Särgika, female of the Meropidae (supra), 149, 151 Salamali-stha, 73, cf. salmala Saliva, Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 220, 221 Salmala, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 73 sikära, Accipiter badius, Shikra, Épervier shikra, 236ff. 512 śikharī, Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled: Lapwing, Vanneau indien, 358 siti-kakşa-grdhra, Siti-kaksin, Gyps bengalensis, (Indian) White-backed Vulture (White-rumped V.J. Vautour Chaugoun, 188, 190 kiti-kantha, Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl]. Paon bleu, 229; Ciconia episcopus, White-necked Stork [Woolly- necked S.]. Cigogne épiscopale; Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Black-necked Stork, Jabiru d'Asie, 389, 390 siti-paksa, Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed Swallow, Hirondelle à longs brins, 101 Siti-prsta, idem, 101 sitodari, idem, 101 sila-nida, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 207 Silindhri, any of the Sittidae (Nuthatch / Sittelle), 24ff. Siva-hamsa, Podiceps cristatus, Great Crested Grebe, Grèbe huppé, 462 Sifijirika, any of the Nectarinidae (Sunbird / Souimanga), 114 śuka, any of the Psittacidae (Parakeet / Perruche), except the Loriculus vernalis [Vernal Hanging Parrot], Indian Loriquet, Coryllis vernal, 23, 142, 143 Suka-cchavi(-kapota), Chalcophaps indica, Emerald Dove, Colombine turvert, 257, 261,262 suka-tunda, any of the Sylviidae, subfamily Sylviinae, tribe Timaliini, called Parrotbills or Suthoras (Fr. Paraxodornis), 23 śuka-näsa, idem, 23 Suka-pucchaka, idem, 118 sukananā, idem, 23 Sukikä, Acgithina tiphia, Common lora, Petit lora, 31 śukla-kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, Corbeau familier (albino), 8 Suddha-vesara, Accipiter virgatus, Besra (Sparrow-hawk), Épervier besra, 241 susulüka, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle Owl [Spot-bellied E. O.), Grand-duc du Népal; or may refer to one of the small Strigidae (Owlet/Chevêchette, Chevêche), 183 śrgala, Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, Aiglet ravisseur, 208, 230, 231 Saisira(-cataka), describes all Buntings (Fringillidae, subfamily Emberizinae) as winter visitors, 96 syama-kantha, Luscinia svecica, (Red- spotted) Bluethroat, Gorgebleue à miroir, 49 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Syáma(-kalavinka). Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 45ff.; Copsychus malabaricus, [White-rumped] Shama, Shama à croupion blanc, 46, 50, 93; may refer to: Parus major, Grey Tit, Mésange charbonnière, 22 śyama-gala-kaka, any black Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus, except the Common Raven (Fr. Grand Corbeau, 61 Syáma-cataka, Emberiza melanocephala, Black-headed Bunting. Bruant mélanocéphale; and Emberiza bruniceps, Red-headed Bunting, Bruant à tête rousse, 95-96 Syava-grdhra, Aegypius monachus, Cinereous Vulture, Vautour moine, 188, 190 śyeta-suka, Psittacula alexandri, (Indian) Red-breasted Parakeet (or Paroquet), Perruche à moustaches, 144 Syena, a generic term which includes the Falconidae (Falcon / Faucon), and certain species of the Accipitridae family, esp. Eagles, Hawk Eagles, Buzzards, 199, 236, may refer specifically to the true Eagles, 199, 200, 204, 205, 208, 210, and to different forms of the Peregrine Falcon (Fr. Faucon pèlerin), 210 Syena-särasa, Grus leucogeranus, Great White (Siberian) Crane, Grue de Sibérie, 312 syenākhya, idem, 320, 321, 323 Syenolüka, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle Owl [Spot-bellied E. O.]. Grand-duc du Népal, 182, 183 śrika, Myiophoneus caeruleus, (Himalayan) [Blue] Whistling Thrush, Arrenga siffleur; Motacilla alba, White Wagtail, Bergeronnette grise, 102 Sri-karna, any of the Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls) with a white, or white and red, patch in the ear-region, 39 śri-vada, one of the various species of Sibia (Sylviidae, subfamily Sylviinae, tribe Timaliini, genus Heterophasia). 50; Myiophoneus caeruleus. (Himalayan) [Blue] Whistling Thrush, Arrenga siffleur, 50, 52 śrī-vada-pakşr, Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 47 śveta-kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, Corbeau familier (albino), 8; Threskiornis aethiopicus [T. melanocephalus], White Ibis (Black-headed I.), Ibis sacré, 9, 386, 387 Index Sanskrit Sveta-karandava, Mergellus albellus, Smew, Harle piette; Mergus merganser, Common Merganser (or Eastern Goosander), Grand Harle, 459 śveta-kokila, Cuculus canorus, Eurasian (Grey or European) Cuckoo, Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan (Asiatic) Cuckoo [Oriental C.]. Coucou oriental, 128f. Sveta-päravata, Columba leuconota, Snow Pigeon, Pigeon des neiges, 256 Sveta-mastaka-lakṣmaṇa, Grus monacha, Hooded Crane, Grue moine, 319, 321 śveta-vaka, Threskiornis aethiopicus [T. melanocephalus], White Ibis [Black- headed I.]. Ibis sacré, 386, 387 Svetolüka, Tyto alba, Barn (White, Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173, 178 S sakrt-praja, any Corvidae, tribe Corvini, genus Corvus (Crow / Corbeau, Corneille), 3 sañcāṇa, sañcâna, sacana, Accipiter badius, Shikra, Épervier shikra, 220, 221, 241ff.; any small Accipitridae (Hawk / Épervier, etc.), 237; cf. sicānāḥ satvā, Parus xanthogenys, Yellow-checked Tit [Black-lored T.J. Mésange à joues jaunes, 22 sattapatta (P; not in PED), any of the Picidae. (Woodpecker / Pic), 119 sadá-lūtā, Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled Lapwing, Vanneau indien, 81, 360; Vanellus malabaricus, Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanneau du Malabar, 360 sapta-räva, cf. garuda, a mythical bird; may refer to the Haliaeetus leucogaster, White- bellied Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre, 213 sapta svasärah, gregarious and noisy birds: Babbler Pomatorhin, Cratérope, esp. Turdoides malcolmi, Large Grey Babbler, Cratérope gris; Turdoides striatus, Jungle Babbler, Cratérope de brousse, 29-31; also any Minivet / Minivet (tribe Oriolini, genus Pericrocotus), 59-60 samudra-kaka, a generic term including Skuas (Fr. Labbes), 337; Gulls (Goélands, Mouettes), 343; Tropicbirds (Fr. Phaétons), 377 sampati, Gyps indicus, (Northern) Long- billed Vulture (or Indian Griffon), Vautour indien; Gyps himalayensis, Himalayan Griffon, Vautour de l'Himalaya; Gyps 513 fulvus, European Griffon [Eurasian G.), Vautour fauve (now considered to be three different species), 196 saranga, Zosterops palpebrosa, [Oriental] White-eye, Zostérops oriental, 112 sarpanta, Circaetus gallicus, Short-toed [Snake] Eagle, Circaète Jean-le-Blanc; Spilornis cheela, Crested Serpent Eagle, Serpentaire bacha; Haliaeetus leucogaster, White-bellied Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre, 211-212 sarpäri, idem, 211-212; Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl), Paon bleu, 270 sarsapi, Charadrius dubius, Little Ringed. Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 334, 357 sätaka, see kottha-sátaka säranga, Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu, 270, Tetrax tetrax, Little Bustard, Outarde cancpetière, 325, 328 säranga-kaka, Nucifraga caryocatactes, [Spotted] Nutcracker, Cassenoix moucheté, 11, 20 säranga-cätaka, Clamator jacobinus, Pied (Crested) Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 104, 131, 134, 135 särasa, Circus aeruginosus, (Eurasian] Marsh Harrier, Busard des roseaux, 247; Grus grus, Common Crane, Grue cendrée, 311, 312, Grus antigone, Sarus (or Indian) Crane, Grue antigone, 312 särädi (Pkt). Threskiornis acthiopicus [T. melanocephalus], White Ibis [Black- headed 1.1, Ibis sacré, 384 särikä, 81, cf. Särikä, esp. Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste, 30, 85; any of the Stumnidae (Starling. Myna / Martin, Étourneau, Mainate), 84; Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 142 salvika, Sturnus contra, [Asian] Pied Myna, Étourneau pie, 86 singila, any Passeridae of the Ploceinac subfamily (Weaver/Tisserin), 89 sicănäh (cf. sañcanah), small Accipitridae (Hawk / Épervier, etc.), 237; also Accipiter badius, Shikra, Épervier shikra, 241-242 sita-nila-cancu-käka, Corvus frugilegus, Rook, Corbeau freux, 2, 20 sita-paksin. Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet indien (refers to the male with a white wing-bar), 46 sithila-hanu (P). Anastomus oscitans, Openbill Stork [Asian Openbill). Bec- ouvert indien, 396 514 sicăpů, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar / Engoulevent), 171 sira-päda, Ithaginis cruentus, Blood Pheasant, Ithagine ensanglantée, 281 sugrha, any Passeridae of the Ploceinae subfamily (Weaver/Tisserin), 88, 89 sugrha-kartā, idem, 89- sugrīva-käñicana, Oriolus xanthornus, Black- headed Oriole [Black-hooded O.], Loriot à capuchon noir, Oriolus traillii, Maroon Oriole, Loriot pourpré, 79 sucitraka, Alcedo atthis, Common (Indian). Kingfisher, Martin-pêcheur d'Europe, 117. 156 sunara-kalavinka, Amandava amandava, Red Munia (Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge. 90, 93 supama, Oriolus oriolus, Golden Oriole, Loriot d'Europe, 72ff.; the mythical bird Garuda, 199, 207, 212; the expression "sapta suparnäh" (seven suparna) may refer to the six true Eagles (genus Aquila) of India, esp. Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 72ff.. 199, 201 ff., 205, along with the i vulture: Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or Bearded Vulture), Gypaète barbu, 200; also Neophron percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.], Vautour percnoptère, 193; Haliaeetus leucogaster, White-bellied Sea-eagle, Pygargue blagre, 212 suparnaka, Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 225 supäráva, Gyps bengalensis, (Indian) White- backed Vulture [White-rumped V.1. Vautour Chaugoun, 190

• subiga (Pkt), read: suvigy

sumukha, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) Vulture, Vautour royal, 10, 188, 1901 sumukha-hamsa (P; not PED, but Ja V 339,6), Cygnus olor. Mute Swan, Cygne tuberculé, 431 suvanna-hamsa (P; Ja V 354,21), Cygnus cygnus, Whooper Swan, Cygne chanteur, 426.431 suvarna-kāka, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, Red-billed Chough, Crave à bec rouge; Pyrrhocorax graculus, Yellow-billed Chough, Chocard à bec jaune, 20 suvarna-patra, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 231 suvarna-puspa, various Nectariniidae (Sunbird Souimanga): Acthopyga siparaja, Yellow-backed Sunbird [Crimson Birds in Sanskrit Literature S.]. Souimanga siparaja: Aethopyga ignicauda, Fire-tailed Sunbird, Souimanga queue-de-feu; Aethopyga nipalensis, Nepal Yellow-backed Sunbird [Green-tailed S.J. Souimanga à queue verte, 114, 156 suvarna-vayasa, 10, cf. suvarna-kaka suvarna-särikā, Sturnus roscus, Rosy Pastor, Étourneau roselin, 86 suviga, Aegithina tiphia, Common lora, Petit. lora, 31 susvara, Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pèlerin, 226 susvara-särasa. Grus antigone, Sarus (or Indian) Crane, Grue antigone, 321 sür-muha (Pkt), any Passeridae of the Ploceinae subfamily (Weaver / Tisserin), 88 (sui is likely incorrect) sükarikā, Aegithina tiphia, Common lora, Petit lora, 31 süksmäsya-käka, Corvus monedula, [Eurasian] Jackdaw, Corbeau calédonien, 4,8 sūcī-mukha, any Passeridae of the Ploceinae subfamily (Weaver/Tisserin), 88, 89 sütra-kantha-kapota, Streptopelia decoacto, Indian Ring Dove [Eurasian Collared D.], Tourterelle turque, 258; Streptopelia tranquebarica, Red Turtle Dove, Tourterelle à tête grise, 258, 264 sedi (Pkt; Pannavanā |Ladnun, 1989] 1,79), Mesophoyx intermedia, Smaller Egret [Intermediate E.]. Héron intermédiaire, 404 seta-hamsa (P; not PED, but Ja V 356,25), Cygnus columbianus davidi, "Chinese Swan" [Tundra Swan], Cygne siffleur, cf. 427f. [N.B. According to Sibley and Monroe, "Cygnus columbianus davidi Swinhoe 1870, Swinhoe's Swan, known from the unique type from Tientsin, in Hopey, China, is probably a young C. (columbianus) bewickii."] sevya (-kalavinka, -cataka), Amandava amandava, Red Munia [Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, 50, 69, 90, 91, 93 stokaka, Clamator jacobinus, Pied (Crested) Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 134 sthala-kukkubha, Centropus sinensis, [Greater] Coucal, Grand Coucal, 139 sthula-nida, Aquila rapax. Tawny Eagle, Aigle ravisseur, 208 sphotikä, any of the Passeridae, subfamily Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit). 107 svarna-coda, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 22 Index Sanskrit svarna-coda-casa. Eurystomus orientalis, Broad-billed Roller [Dollarbird], Rolle oriental, 20 svara-cola, Melanochlora sultanea, Sultan Tit. Mésange sultane, 22 svamma-paksa, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 206,231 svarna-sikha, Melanochlora sultanea, Sultan Tit, Mésange sultane, 22 svalpa-kanka, Ardeola grayii, [Indian] Pond Heron (or Paddybird), Crabier de Gray, 405 svalpa-sañcara, any of the Alaudidae, genera Eremoptrix and Ammomanes (Finch Lark [Sparrow Lark], Lark / Moinelette, Ammomane), 110 svastika, Coracias benghalensis, Indian. Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18; Coq domestique, 18 h hamsa, a generic term for a large part of the Anatidae family: Swans (Fr. Cygnes), Geese (Fr. Oies), Ducks (Fr. Canards), 95, 422 hamsaka, small hamsas, esp. Ducks (Fr. Canards) and Teals (Fr. Sarcelles), 422 hamsa-karandava, compound encompassing Swans (Fr. Cygnes). Geese (Fr. Oies), Ducks (Fr. Canards), Coots (Fr. Foulques), 422 hamsa-vaja, "Greenland Falcon", a form of the Falco rusticolus, Gyrfalcon, Faucon gerfaut, 219 [N. B. A term used to refer to a form (Falco rusticolus candicans Gmelin) which is no longer classified in this way.] hatthilinga-sakuna (P), Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant), Marabout argala, 397; may also refer to: Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande Outarde, 328 n. haya-pondariya (Pkt), any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican/Pélican), 370 harali, Dendrocygna javanica. Lesser Whistling Teal (Lesser Whistling-duck]. Dendrocygne siffleur, 450 harita, Chloropsis hardwickei. Orange- bellied Chloropsis [Orange-bellied Leafbird), Verdin de Harwicke, 33, 122 harita-hamsa. Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose]. Anserelle de Coromandel, 450 515 II harita-hamsa (P: Paramatthajotikā 277,11), Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton Teal (Cotton Pygmy-goose]. Anserelle de Coromandel, 436, 450 haritala, haridranga, any Green Pigeons of the Columbidae family, genus Treron (Fri Colombars, Carpophages), 251, 253 hariyala, Treron apicauda, Pin-tailed Green. Pigeon, Colombar à longue queue: Treron sphenura, Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon, Colombar chanteur, 254 hari-locana, any large Strigidae (Owl / Hibou, Chouette), 177 haritaka, Chrysococcyx maculatus, [Asian] Emerald Cuckoo, Coucou émeraude, 131 hali-mukha, Recurvirostrá avosetta. [Pied] Avocet, Avocette élégante, 361 hasti-linga-bhäranda, Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant), Marabout argala, 399 haholika, noisy birds including: Sturnus vulgaris, [Common] Starling, Étourneau sansonnet; Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna, Martin triste; Sturnus contra, Pied Myna [Asian Pied Starling], Étourneau pie; Turdoides caudatus, Common Babbler, Cratérope indien; Tordoides striatus, Jungle Babbler, Cratérope de brousse, 30, 87 hapana, häpita, cf. 216 n. ha-putrika, Charadrius dubius, Little Ringed. Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 334; any of the Glareolidae, subfamily Glareolinae, genus Glareola (Pratincole/Glaréole), 335 haridraka, 251, 253, 260, cf. haritala haridrava, Motacilla citreola, Yellow-headed Wagtail [Citrine W.]. Bergeronnette citrine, 75, 76; Oriolus oriolus, [Eurasian] Golden Oriole, Loriot d'Europe, 75, 76, 104 harita, 131, 251, 253, 254, cf. haritala; Chalcophaps indica, Emerald Dove, Colombine turvert, 131, 257, 259, 260, 262; esp. Treron apicauda. Pin-tailed Green Pigeon, Colombar à longue queue: Wedge- tailed Green Pigeon, Colombar chanteur, 254 hima-kukkuta, Scolopax rusticola, (Eurasian] Woodcock, Bécasse des bois, 367 hima-tittira, idem, 367 hiranya-kakşa, Gyps bengalensis, (Indian). White-backed Vulture (White-rumped V.]. Vautour Chaugoun, 190 hilla, Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer, Bec-en-ciseaux à collier, 353 516 hutururu, Megalaima asiatica, Blue-throated. Barbet, Barbu à gorge bleue, 124 hemaka, Megalaima haemacephala, Crimson-breasted Barbet (Coppersmith Barbet]. Barbu à plastron rouge, 125; N.B. Megalaima rubricapilla, Crimson-throated Barbet [Crimson-fronted Barbet], Barbet à couronne rouge, closely resembling. Coppersmith Barbet, but found only in the Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka. hema-kartr, idem, 124 hema-tunda, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17 hema-tunda-casa, Eurystomus orientalis, Broad-billed Roller [Dollarbird], Rolle oriental, 20 hairanyaka, 125, cf. hemaka Birds in Sanskrit Literature. Excerpts from reviews: "This splendid book is a study of many of the bird names found in Sanskrit literature, from the ancient books of the Rig Veda, and the classical epics of the Mahabharata and the Rāmāyaṇa to the ancient lore of the Puranas and on through the works of later Sanskrit literature: didactic fables, ethical poetry and then the literature in the Prakrits and Pali. K.N. Dave covers considerable ground and he covers it in a way that will keep the attention of those who enjoy ornithological studies, as well as those who have a general interest in Indian and Eastern literature." -JOHN A.C. GREPPIN, Times Literery Supplement, 27, Dec. 1985 The author clearly scoured the Sanskrit literature for bird references, and this makes the book an excellent starting point for a real ornithologist to tackle the issue, with the help of a translator. As it stands it is useful in understanding how the ancient writers saw and classified birds, but would have been more helpful if the author had made some attempt to date the works to which he refers (though dating texts is a very contentious issue amongst Sanskritists). Too little attention has been paid to the likelihood of names transferring from species to species through time, though the author was clearly aware of the very northern, even outside-Indian, bias of the very earliest writings (the Vedas). Compared to analyses of other ancient texts, notably the Bible and ancient Egyptian material, this book, though substantial, is ornithologically disappointing, but is a mine of fascinating folklore. -ANTHONY CHEKE, Journals of British Ornithologists Union, p.123, Vol. 129, 1987. MOTILAL BANARSIDASS Delhi Mumbai Chennai • Kolkata Bangalore Varanasi Pune. Patna E-mail: mlbd@vsnl.com Website: www.mlbd.com Code: 18423 ISBN 81-208-1842-3 9788120 818422